
Class . ] ■-< : - : .' 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Elements of 
Trench Warfare 

Waldron 



Elements of 
Trench Warfare 

By 
Captain William H. Waldron 

29th U. S. Infantry 

DISTINGUISHED GRADUATE INFANTRY AND 

CAVALRY SCHOOL, 1905 

GRADUATE ARMY STAFF COLLEGE, 1906 

GRADUATE ARMY WAR COLLEGE, 1911 

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR ARMY WAR 

COLLEGE COURSE, 1911-12 

Author of 

"Scouting and Patrolling" 

"Tactical Walks" 

Price 60 cents 



Washington 
1917 



. r ^ 



Copyright, 1917, by 
William H. Waldron 



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JUL -3 .317 



©CU 470230 



NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C. 



Agencies 

This book may be purchased from any one of the 
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Army and Navy Register 

Washington, D. C. 

The Book Department 

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Union Trust Building 

Washington, D. C. 

The Book Department 

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No. 1, Broadway, New York City 

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or 

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The price is 60 cents, postage paid 

See " Tactical Walks'" advertisement in the lack 
of this book. 



NOTICE 

There is a wealth of material in this little book 
that will interest the soldier. From the illus- 
trations alone he will be able to obtain a good 
general idea of the subject. 

It is essentially a soldier's book, written in 
language that he can understand. The price 
has been kept within the limits of his pocketbook. 

With a view to securing a wide distribution of 
the book I desire to secure a representative in 
every organization in the Army. I have an 
attractive proposition to make to competent 
parties. 

A letter will bring particulars. My address 
will be found in the Army List and Directory. 
If this is not available, a letter addressed as 
follows will be forwarded to me: 

Captain W. H. Waldron, 

29th Infantry, 

Care of "Infantry Journal," 

Washington, D. C. 

(Signed) W T . H. Waldron. 



VI 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Chapter I. — The Organization of a Section 

of the Position 1 

Chapter II. — Obstacles. Construction, re- 
pair. Wire entanglements, barri- 
cades, land mines, inundation 4 

Chapter III. — Lookout and Listening 

Posts: Types. Construction, service. 18 

Chapter IV. — Field Trenches: Traversed 
trenches. Type's of trenches. Drain- 
age. Communication trenches. Dug- 
outs. Penetration of projectiles. Com- 
munication. Trench mortar positions. 
Machine guns. Supporting points. ... 24 

Chapter V. — Use and Improvement of 

Natural Cover 50 

Chapter VI. — Revetments : Sandbags. Fas- 
cines. Hurdles. Gabions 64 

Chapter VII. — Working Parties : Details of 
organization. Laying out tasks. Op- 
erations 80 

Chapter VIII.— Grenade Warfare: Organi- 
zation and tactics of grenadiers. Offen- 
sive operations . C learing fire trenches . 
Clearing communication trenches. 
Night operations. Grenade patrols. 

Notes on grenade warfare 86 

vii 



viii Contents 

Chapter IX.— Gas Warfare: Methods of Pa s e 
dissemination of gas. Gas helmets, 
care and use of. Sprayers 105 

Chapter X.— Service in the Trenches: Pre- 
parations for entering. Inspection of 
trenches. Tactical dispositions. Going 
into the trenches. Information rou- 
tine. Observation field glasses. Snip- 
ers. What to fire at. Use of rifle gren- 
ades. Scouting and patrolling. Care 
of arms. Care of trenches. Latrines. 
Maps. Frost bite. The trench sol- 
dier's creed 114 

Chapter XI. — The Attack in Trench War- 
fare 146 



INTRODUCTION 

This little book has been prepared with a view 
to placing before the soldier a store of informa- 
tion on the subject of Trench Warfare as it has 
been developed on the battle fronts of Europe, 
and giving him some idea of the nature of the 
service that he will be called upon to perform 
when the time arrives for him to do his "bit." 

The illustrations have been carefully prepared 
and arranged to the end that the soldier may 
gain a fair knowledge of the subject from them 
alone. The text is intended to treat the subject 
in a purely elementary manner that the soldier 
may be able to understand. 

The size of the book is such that it may be 
conveniently carried in the pocket and referred 
to as occasion requires. The price has been 
kept down to the point where it is available to 
the soldier. 

If the book assists in his preparation for the 
front and, by reason of the knowledge that he 
has gained from it, helps to make him more 
efficient when he gets there, it will have served 
its purpose. 

The Author. 



IX 



CHAPTER I 

Organization 

The normal organization of an intrenched 
position includes the following elements from 
front to rear: 

1. In front of the position and at a variable 
distance from the first line fire trench there is a 
line of wire entanglements. (See Obstacles, p. 4.) 

2. Close up to the wire entanglements there 
is an intrenched post known as the "listening 
post," which is connected with the first line fire 
trench by a zigzag communicating trench. 
(See Listening Posts, p. 18.) 

3. Then comes the first line fire trench with 
attached machine-gun emplacements at con- 
venient points. (See Fire Trench and Machine- 
Gun Emplacements, pp. 24 and 44.) 

4. The fire trench is so narrow that lateral 
communication along it is effected only with 
difficulty. In order to provide a passageway a 
communication or supervision trench is provided 
a few yards in rear of the fire trench. Passage- 
ways lead from this communication trench to the 
fire trench and to the dugouts located along it. 

5. At a variable distance in rear of the fire 
trench (100 to 200 yards) the emplacements for 

1 



2 Elements of Trench Warfare 

bomb-throwing apparatus and trench mortars 
are located. These are connected up laterally 
by a communication trench which joins with 
the main communication trench running from 
front to rear through the position. (See Em- 
placements for Trench Mortars, p. 41.) 

6. From 100 to 400 yards to the rear of the 
first line fire trench, and generally parallel to 
it, is the supporting trench or cover for the sup- 
ports. This trench is invariably provided with 
strong overhead cover and a system of dugouts 
for the protection of the troops. (See Cover for 
Supports, p. 48.) 

7. This whole arrangement of trenches is 
connected throughout from front to rear, and 
laterally, by a system of zigzag communication 
trenches. 

Take this brief description together with 
Plate 1, the drawing that accompanies this 
volume, and study the two until you get the 
entire system fixed firmly in your mind; that is, 
until you get a mental picture of all the elements 
included in the system. 

After you have done this, study on through 
the book in order that you may know the pur- 
pose of each of these elements and how one 
links up with the other. 



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Organization 3 

This is the typical system now in use in the 
European war theaters. Circumstances at cer- 
tain places may render some variations neces- 
sary, and it must not be inferred that the trace 
of the works is the same throughout. As a rule 
the types of trenches (altered when necessary 
to meet local conditions) illustrated herein are 
the ones in actual use on the war fronts. 

All of these trenches and their accessories 
constitute what is known as the first line. At a 
distance of from 2,000 to 5,000 yards in rear of 
this first line a second line, organized in a similar 
manner, is to be found. 

At intervals of from 800 to 1,500 yards along 
the first line-centers of resistance, or what we 
know as "supporting points," are located. 
These consist of fortified villages, or a network 
(labyrinth) of trenches, provided with every 
defensive device known to modern warfare. 
The object of these supporting points is to bring 
a flanking fire to bear on the intervals between 
them, with the idea that an attacking force 
cannot advance beyond them without capturing 
them. 

Plate 2 shows the general scheme of the occu- 
pation of a sector of the line by a field army of 
two divisions. 



CHAPTER II 

Obstacles 

The element of the defensive line nearest the 
enemy is a line or series of lines of obstacles 
which are designed for the purpose of: 

1. Protecting the lines from surprise. 

2. Reducing the momentum of the attack, by 
breaking up the unity of action and cohesion. 

3. Holding the enemy under the effective fire 
of the defenders. 

The conditions that obstacles should fulfil 
are as follows. They must — 

1. Be close to the defender's position. As a 
rule on the western front they are not more 
than from 50 to 100 yards distant. If they are 
too close it may be possible to throw hand 
grenades from the far edge of them into the 
defender's trenches. 

2. As far as practicable, be sheltered and 
screened from the enemy. Shell fire is the most 
effective method of destroying obstacles. If 
they are not concealed they may furnish aiming 
points for the enemy's fire against the first line 
fire trench by his being able to estimate its loca- 
tion with reference to the obstacle. 

4 



Obstacles 



3. Afford no cover or screen to the enemy. 

4. Be so placed that the enemy will come upon 
them as a surprise. 

5. Be so constructed as to be difficult of re- 
moval under fire and impracticable to negotiate 
while still reasonably intact.' 

6. Be arranged so as not to interfere with a 
counter attack. The obstacles may have occa- 
sional gaps left in them which may be mined. 

The different classes of obstacles are: Abatis, 
low wire entanglements, high wire entangle- 
ments, barricades, mines, fougasses, crows feet, 
military pits with wire entanglements, inunda- 
tions, etc. 




Plate 3. — Abatis. 

Abatis (pronounced abatee) consists of branches 
of trees lying parallel to each other, butts 
pointing to the rear, and the branches interlaced 
with barbed wire. All leaves and small twigs 
should be removed and the stiff ends of branches 



6 Elements of Trench Warfare 

pointed. The butts are staked or tied down or 
anchored by covering them with earth. When 
more than one row is used the branches overlap 
the butts of those in front so as to make the 
abatis about 5 feet high. An abatis formed by 
felling trees towards the enemy, leaving the 
butt hanging to the stump, is called slashing. 




mm 

Plate 4. — Slashing. 

Barbed wire is the material 
Wire most employed in the con- 

Entanglements struction of obstacles. It 
may be used in the following 
manner : 

1. As a simple trip, for giving the alarm. It 
is stretched just above the ground and attached 
to some object that will cause a noise to be made 
if molested. 

2. A simple wire fence, to cause delay and 
confusion to the enemy in his advance. 



Obstacles 7 

3. As an adjunct to tree and brushwood en- 
tanglement. 

4. As a wire entanglement. 

5. As a covering for portable cylinders. 

The advantages of the barbed-wire entangle- 
ment are: 

1. It is easily and quickly made. 

2. It is difficult to destroy. 

3. It is difficult to get through. 

4. It offers no obstruction to the view and fire 
of the defense. 

The low wire entanglement is constructed as 
follows : 

1. Drive stakes in the ground until they pro- 
ject about 18 inches. The stakes should be 
about 6 feet apart, those in each row being op- 
posite the intervals in adjacent rows. 

2. The wire is then passed loosely from the 
head of one stake to another, wound around each 
and stapled. 

3. Where two or more wires cross they should 
be tied together. 

A more useful and efficient modification of 
the low wire entanglement is made by stapling 
the wire down the sides of the stakes, allowing 
five or more feet of slack wire between stakes. 
Drive the stakes in the ground until the top is 



8 Elements of Trench Warfare 

flush. This results in a loose network of tangled 
wires difficult to get through, easily concealed, 
and difficult to remove. 

The high wire entanglement is made by driv- 
ing stakes so that they protrude from 4 to 6 feet 
above the ground. They are placed at irregular 
intervals 5 to 8 feet apart. The head of each 
stake is connected with the foot of adjoining 
stakes with the wire loosely drawn, wound 
around the stakes and stapled fast. Each 
center post should be stayed by four wires. 
There should be a trip wire about 9 inches from 
the ground all the way across the front and 
another about a foot from the top of the center 
posts. Barbed wire may then be hung in fes- 
toons throughout the entanglement, with no 
fixed pattern. To increase the entanglement 
wire may be stapled to the foot of the posts, 
as indicated in the paragraph above, before 
they are driven. Large nails should be driven 
in the tops of the posts with half their length 
protruding. A number of the wires in the en- 
tanglement should be fastened together where 
they cross. The wire should be passed through 
paint, if practicable, to take away the bright 
color. The posts should be painted the color 
of the surrounding country. Under the con- 



Obstacles 



9 



ditions encountered on the western front this 
work has to be done hastily. It is best, there- 
fore, to limit the first stage of construction to 
just so many strands as will form a nucleus for 




Plate 4a. — Plan of wire entanglement. 




■^".id 



Plate 5. — High wire entanglement. 



10 Elements of Trench Warfare 

the whole entanglement, in order that the area 
may be covered by an obstacle before interrup- 
tion occurs. 

Tight wires help the enemy's advance by form- 
ing supports for hurdles. It must be constantly 
borne in mind that the wires must not be stretched 
taut. 

A portable wire entanglement is constructed 
by stretching wire loosely around a wooden 
framework, either circular or square or made on 
a knife rest, and rolling it into position to close 
up gaps that may have been made in the en- 
tanglement. The illustration shows the wooden 
framework. 



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I I 

II II 
ll II 
II II 



Plate 5a. — Alarm trap. 



Obstacles 



11 




Plate 6. 



-Portable entanglement. Constructed in the 
trenches and rolled into position. 



The ordinary repairs to entanglements are 
made under cover of darkness by working parties 
detailed for the purpose. Iron posts that can 
be quickly placed in position are advantageous, 
their disadvantage being that they may retard 
bullets that would go through the ordinary 
wooden posts, thus furnishing just that much 
cover and protection to attacking parties. 

In the construction and repair of entangle- 
ments care must be taken to see that they are 
firmly fastened into the ground with numerous 
stay posts or "deadmen." This is to prevent 
the enemy from pulling them to pieces with 
grappling hooks connected to ropes that lead to 
his trenches and are attached to powerful wind - 
lasses or capstans. 



12 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Barricades are employed for 
Barricades the defense of streets, roads, 
bridges, etc. They may be 
made out of any available material such as 
furniture, vehicles (overturned or with wheels 
removed), carts rilled with stones, bales of 
goods, etc. 

Where trees grow along the roadside they may 
be felled across the road. If necessary, barbed 
wire may be run through the branches to make 
the passage more difficult. 




Plate 7. — Plan of barricade 
for blocking a road. 



Obstacles 13 

Barricades should not as a rule close the road 
entirely to traffic. Passages are required to 
allow the defenders to pass through when it is 
necessary to do so. Hence they should be made 
in two parts, one overlapping the other, as shown 
in the illustration. 

A fougass is a mine so arranged that upon 
explosion a large mass of stones is projected 
against the enemy. An excavation is made in 
the shape of a frustrom of a cone, inclining the 
axis in the direction of the enemy so as to make 
an angle with the horizon of about 45 degrees. 
The sides splay outward slightly. A box of 
powder is placed in a recess at the bottom. 
This is covered with a platform of wood several 
inches thick, on which the stones are piled. 

The fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back 
of the excavation, or the mine may be exploded 
by means of electricity. 

The line of least resistance for the charge must 
be arranged so that the powder will act in the 
direction of the axis and not vertically. This 
is accomplished by throwing the excavated 
earth on the crest towards the defender's side 
and ramming it well. 

To ascertain the powder charge for any fougass, 
divide the number of pounds of stone in the 



14 Elements of Trench Warfare 

charge by 150. This gives the number of pounds 
of powder in the powder charge. Thus a fougass 
charged with about 70 pounds of powder will 
throw about 5 tons of stone over a surface 
about 160 yards long and 120 yards wide. 




^//AV^S 



Plate 8. — Fougass. 




Plate 9. — Vertical fougass. 



Obstacles 15 

When broken up a cubic foot of stone weighs 
about 100 pounds. 

A vertical type of fougass is also shown. A 
charge of 25 pounds of powder should scatter a 
cubic yard of stones over an area about 200 by 
100 yards. 

Small Land Mines 

Land mines are placed in the line of the ad- 
vance of the enemy and exploded either by elec- 
tricity or fuse from the defense. They are made 
by digging holes from 2 to 3 yards deep, either 
by excavation or by boring. In the former case 
the charge is placed in a recess which extends 
into the solid earth at the side of the hole, which 
is then refilled and tamped. In the latter case 
the charge is placed in the bottom of the hole, 
which is then refilled and solidly tamped. In 
common earth the powder charge for a 2-yard 
hole is 25 pounds. That for a 3-yard hole is 80 
pounds. The diameter of the crater formed will 
be about twice the depth of the charge. 

The mines may be arranged in one or more 
rows. The intervals between mines should be 
such that the craters will nearly but not quite 
join. The position of the mines should be con- 
cealed as much as possible and further sophisti- 



16 Elements of Trench Warfare 

cated by disturbing the ground slightly at points 
where there are no mines and so situated as to 
suggest a systematic arrangement. 




WtwvfFVTjpvmvfr 



Plate 9a. — Land mine. 
F, Line from powder charge to battery. 
P, Powder charge. 



Inundation 

Backing up the water of a stream so that it 
overflows a considerable area forms a good 
obstacle, even though of fordable depth. If 
shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increased 
by irregular holes or ditches dug before the water 
comes up, or by constructing wire entanglements 
in the water. It may be employed with advan- 
tage when the drainage of a considerable area 



Obstacles 



17 



passes through a restricted opening, as a natural 
gorge, culvert or bridge. 

Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones 
rilled with gravel, may form the basis of the 
obstruction to the flow of the water. The 
usual method of tightening spaces or cracks be- 
tween cribs is by throwing in earth or alternate 
layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of 
clay. A continuous construction, as shown in 
the illustration, may be employed. The ends of 
the dam must be carried well into the solid earth 
to prevent the water from cutting around them. 
This type of dam is easily destroyed by artillery 
fire, and cannot be depended upon. 




Plate 10. — Dam construction. 



CHAPTER III 
Lookout and Listening Posts 

Except when the garrison are actually re- 
quired to man the parapet, they will be kept 
under cover, with the exception of a few look- 
outs, whose duty it is to give timely warning of 
the movements of the enemy. 

When the opposing forces are in close proximity 
to each other mining operations are generally 
resorted to by both sides to compass the destruc- 
tion of the opposing works and open the way for 
an attack. 

Lookout and listening posts serve the double 
purpose of having a few men at the most advan- 
tageous places for observation at the front and 
flanks and providing points at some distance to 
the front of the first line fire trenches from which 
listeners may be able to discover the location 
and direction of enemy mining operations before 
they really menace the fire trench. 

In the normal case there will be some natural 
cover available. Such, however, is not always 
the case, and specially constructed observation 
stations have to be provided. 

The posts should be placed in advance of the 
first line trench, the distance depending upon 

18 



Lookout and Listening Posts 19 

circumstances which have to be determined in 
each particular instance. They must be fully 
protected from reverse fire so that there will be 
no chance of the observer masking the fire of his 
comrades manning the fire trench. 

Unless the ground is very favorable it will be 
found difficult to provide for observation above 
ground. Where there are natural features such 
as embankments, mounds, hedgerows, ruins of 
buildings, etc., it may be possible to make 
provision for observation even by day. 

Where a loophole is used, the type having the 
narrower end outward should be provided. 

In the open type of post the observation 
directly to the front may be greatly facilitated 
by the use of the periscope. (Plate 11.) 

A good, strong parapet thrown up and chopped 
off at the corners will enable the observer to 
cover areas from an oblique direction from 
the post and protect him from fire from the 
front. 

In the covered type the observer is provided 
loopholes having the splay towards him. These 
may also be constructed to the oblique rather 
than to the front. When this is done, provision 
must be made to cover the entire front of the 
position from the several posts. (Plate 12.) 



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Plate 11. — Open type of listening post. 




Plate 12. — Covered type of listening post. 




Plate 13. — A listening and observation post. 



22 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The post may be connected with the first 
line fire trench by a narrow zigzag trench or by 
an underground passage. If the former, it must 
be thoroughly concealed and have no excavated 
earth visible. If it can be located along a hedge 
or some other natural feature its location may 
remain unknown to the enemy for a considerable 
length of time. Where a communication gallery 
is constructed the roof and walls must be suitably 
shored up by casing and supports. 

The sentinel in the listening post carries no 
accouterments. It has been found that the 
creaking noise made by equipment when the 
sentinel moves has been taken for mining opera- 
tions of the enemy by his comrades. 

Listening galleries should never be left without 
a sentinel. There should be a depot of arms and 
hand grenades near the entrance to the gallery 
in case men are attacked while on duty from 
either above or below ground. 

Listening will be conducted at specified times, 
or on some prearranged signal, and for a definite 
period. During this time all within the listening 
area, including the trenches, must remain ab- 
solutely motionless. 

Infantry manning a trench can assist listening 
by digging a small pit, 6 feet deep below the 



Lookout and Listening Posts 23 

trench, and running a bore-hole out 20 feet or 
more. 

The enemy is always listening for indications 
of the direction and position of gallery heads. 
Work must therefore be carried on with a mini- 
mum of noise. Shouting down the shafts of 
galleries is absolutely forbidden. 

When the mining operations of the enemy arc 
detected a report should be made at once to the 
officer in charge of that section of the trench. 



CHAPTER IV 
Field Trenches 

The next element of the defensive position is 
the first line fire trenches. These are located so as 
to have a good field of fire to the front for several 
hundred yards and so constructed as to give 
the greatest cover and protection from the fire 
of the enemy. 

An unbroken, continuous trench would be 
exposed to enfilade fire. A shell, shrapnel or 
grenade bursting therein would have widespread 
effect. To overcome these elements the trench 
is constructed in short lengths, with traverses 
between them, and technically known as the 
traverse type. 

Better defilade is thus secured and the material 
effect of any burst is confined to narrow limits. 

The trench interval between the traverses is! 
known as the "bay," which should not ordinarily 
be longer than 18 feet. Longer bays invite ; 
heavy casualties in case the trench is enfiladed or 
a high explosive shell finds its mark. 

The illustration, Plate 14, shows a trace of th( 
traversed type of fire trench. 

24 




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26 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Type of Trench 

Formerly, protection from the enemy's fire 
was obtained by thickness of parapet. In the 
trench warfare of today it is obtained by com- 
pletely concealing the riflemen in a deep, narrow 
trench with a very low parapet. 

The height over which the average man can 
fire is about 5 feet or about five-sixths of his own 
height. This factor determines the height of 
the parapet above the firing banquet of the trench 
or the height of bottom of loophole above the 
same point, when the latter is employed. 

The type of trench in general use today is the 
simple standing trench shown in Plate 15. 

(♦«+o,3* ♦o,3or*f) 



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Plate 15. — Simple standing trench. 1. Width at top, 3 
feet 4 inches. 2. Width at bottom, over all, 2 feet 8 
inches. 3. Width of firing banquet, 1 foot 4 inches. 

4. Height of parapet above firing banquet, 5 feet. 

5. Height of parapet above bottom of trench, 6 feet 4 
inches. 



28 Elements of Trench Warfare 






Drainage 

If a trench is to be occupied for any length of 
time, especially if much ground or falling water 
is to be encountered, drainage becomes of prime 
importance. Many years ago a celebrated 
military authority asserted that "nothing so 
saps the courage of a soldier as to wet the seat 
of his breeches." This may be accepted as a 
true maxim, especially in cold weather. The 
trench should therefore be made as dry as 
possible. The floor of the trench should be 
given a sufficient slope to the rear where an 
intercepting drain should carry the water to pre- 
pared sumps or to a point from which it can be 
disposed of by drainage. Provision should also 
be made to exclude surface drainage from the 
trenches. 

A scheme for trench drainage is shown in the ' 
illustrations (Plates 16, 17 and 18). 

Overhead cover may be provided as shown in 
Plates 19 and 20. 

Loopholes are made wherever head cover is] 
provided. Where the enemy's trenches are 
close, there is considerable danger hi using them. 
Collective firing takes place over the parapet. 
When loopholes are used they should face half- 




Plate 16. — Method of draining trench. 




Plate 17. — Details of 
trench drainage. 




Plate 18. — Detail of g i 
trench drainage. &i 




Plate 19. — Overhead cover. 



fsiemy 




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Plate 19a. — Overhead cover. 




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Plate 20. — Overhead cover. 




Plate 20a. — Overhead cover. 



32 Elements of Trench Warfare 

right or half -left and not directly to the front. 
The disadvantages of loopholes are: 

1. The difficulty of concealing firing points. 
Loopholes give the enemy's snipers an easy mark. 

2. They lessen the number of rifles that can 
be used at a given point. 

3. The necessary head cover makes it difficult 
to get out of the trench quickly. 

4. Damaged head cover often spoils a good 
firing point. 

The three types of loopholes are : 

1. Narrowest point of the opening nearest the 
marksman. This type is most difficult to con- 
ceal, much of the parapet thickness is cut away 
and, if of hard material, tends to deflect the 
bullets into the firer's face. This defect may be 
remedied somewhat by stepping the surface of 
the loophole. 

2. Narrowest point to the front. Easiest to 
conceal but gives a limited field of view. 

3. Narrowest point midway between the front 
and rear. A compromise between the first two 
types. 

The following general remarks on the construc- 
tion of loopholes are taken from a work based 
upon the experience gained during the war in 
Europe : 



Field Trenches 



33 



1. The angle of splay is usually 60 degrees. 
The thicker the parapet the smaller must be the 
angle of splay. 

2. The marksman holds his rifle in a line con- 
necting the right shoulder, the eye and the object, 
hence most of the body lies to the left of the 
rifle. The loophole should be made to the 



T hroat 




Plate 21. — Types of loopholes. 




K.V'iii. lu,,./ ..,', 'iffeS 

\grtyiimBii%iro:»t,i,«iu, l '.»i, v-^ g 

n / ht [\ 

M V(^iLiS!iiSkAa»^.,ig-; 





r 




H 




M 


B 


\\i 


w 


k *J 









Plate 22. — Methods of constructing loopholes 
with sandbags. 



Field Trendies 35 

right, with a niche in the wall of the parapet 
from the hip to the armpit, to bring the left 
shoulder well forward. It will be found that 
this permits the right elbow to be placed on the 
edge of the parapet. 

3. Box loopholes with screens or blindage may 
be used, but should be placed by a skilled marks- 
man. The great disadvantage is that the enemy 
notes these parapet alterations. Steel loophole 
plates are now provided for this type of loophole. 
As the Germans sometimes use a steel bullet 
with great penetrating power, it is advisable to 
place two plates together to insure protection. 

4. With every precaution that may be taken 
it is difficult to conceal a loophole. A good plan 
is to deceive the enemy by using painted sand- 
bags and preparing plenty of dummy loopholes. 

5. The minimum width of loopholes should 
be %}/2 inches. If narrower than this, it is im- 
possible to use both eyes to judge distances 
correctly. 

(i. The parapet should be so sloped that there 
is a maximum grazing fire when the rifle is fired 
as il lies on the parapet. 

To insure that the bullet will not graze the 
parapet, although the sights are clear, look 
through the barrel with the bolt removed. 



36 Elements of Trench Warfare 

In the first line fire trenches 
Communication there are so many crooks and 
Trench turns and the trench itself is 

so narrow that passage along 
the same is very difficult. To provide for this 
lateral communication a trench known as the 
communication or supervision trench is dug. It 
runs generally parallel to and a short distance in 
rear of the fire trench and is connected therewith 
by zigzag approaches. The factor that determines 
the distance between the fire trench and the 
communication trench is that it should be at such 




Plate 23. — Type of communication trench. 






Field Trenches 37 

a distance that a shell bursting in one of the bays 
would not destroy the communication trench. 

The location of the communication trench with 
respect to the fire trench and the arrangements of 
the approaches is shown in detail in Plate 1. 

The profile of the ordinary communication 
trench is shown in Plate 23. 

During the artillery bom- 
Dugouts bardment few men are left in 
the fire trenches. The re- 
mainder of the garrison is held under cover a 
short distance to the rear. This cover is pro- 
vided by a system of dugouts connected with 
the fire trench through underground passage- 
ways that lead to the communication trench. 
This arrangement is shown in Plate 1. 

A profile of the latest type of dugout is shown 
in Plate 24. . 

The solid earth cover is from 12 to 18 feet 
thick, which gives protection from all but the 
very largest caliber shells. 

Effective resistance is supplied by roofing 
materials as follows: 

1. From shrapnel bullets: 2-inch planks cov- 
ered with 12 inches of earth. 

2. From 3 -inch shells: 4 -inch planks sup- 
porting 4 feet of earth with a top layer 




H 

I 



W cu 



Field Trenches 39 

of heavy stones to cause an early shell burst. 

3. From howitzers of less than 6 inches caliber: 
12-inch beams or logs covered with 8 feet of 
earth. 

4. From the largest caliber guns: 15 to 25 
feet of earth. 

The following table shows the penetration of 
the German S bullet at a range of 200 yards : 

Inches 

Steel plate ^i 

Broken stone 6 

Brickwork, cement and mortar 9 

Brickwork, lime and mortar 14 

Sandbags 24 

Sand, loose 30 

Hardwood, oak, etc 38 

Earth 50 

Soft wood, poplar, etc 58 

Clay 60 

Dry turf 80 

In addition to the regular "dugouts" for the 
supports, the latest type trenches have squad 
dugouts just in rear of the bays of the fire trench. 
These provide shelter during bombardment for 
the members of the squad not actually required 
on duty in the trench bay. 



40 Elements of Trench Warfare 







Plate 24a. — Section of traversed type of fire trench 
showing entrance to squad dugout. 



The fire trench is connected 
Communica- with the cover for supports 
tions by a system of zigzag trenches 

having the profile shown in 
Plate 23. The arrangement is shown in Plate 1. 
Somewhere between the first 
Trench Mortar line fire trench and the cover 
Positions for the supports is a line of 
emplacements for the trench 
mortars. Plate 25 shows a profile of the em- 
placement. 






42 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The arrangement of the position is shown in 
Plate 1. 

These trench mortars are used to hurl charges 
of high explosives varying from 25 to 100 pounds 
into the enemy's lines. They have a range of 
from 300 to 1,800 yards. 




Plate 25a. — Trench mortar. 




Plate 25b. — Improvised catapult. 



44 Elements of Trench Warfare 

At a variable distance to 
Cover for the rear of the first line fire 
Supports trench is located the cover 
for supports, which is organ- 
ized much in the same manner as the first line 
system of trenches and affords a second posi- 
tion in the system to fall back to in case of 
necessity. These trenches are provided with 
overhead cover and numerous dugouts for the 
protection of the men. 

At every available place 
Machine Guns throughout the defensive posi- 
tion machine guns are located, 
typical positions of which are shown in Plate 1. 
The typical types of cover are shown in Plates 
26 and 27. 

Machine guns are a very potent factor in 
trench warfare. They are now being employed 
to a far greater extent than ever before, and the 
number is increasing on all the battle fronts 
as fast as they can be manufactured. The 
machine-gun positions are carefully concealed 
from the enemy, and fire is not opened until it 
is certain that it will be effective. 

The selection of the sites for the emplacements 
should be made with a view to bringing a power- 
ful enfilade or oblique fire on the attacking enemy 







M 

c 



C^ 



46 Elements of Trench Warfare 




•f'o,3©(*1') 



♦o.ao^o 




Plate 27. — Type of cover for machine guns. 

at effective range, to provide a flanking fire for 
supporting troops, and to sweep gaps in the line 
of obstacles. 

Their fire should come as a surprise to the 
attacking party. 



Field Trenches 47 

In the construction of cover for machine guns 
the following points should be observed : 

1. They must have a platform for the gun and 
gunner. This may be provided for in the con- 
struction of the emplacement or built up with 
sandbags. The platform should be 3 feet wide 
and 6 }/2 feet in length. 

2. If head cover is provided, it should not 
differ in appearance from that constructed else- 
where in the trenches. The loopholes must be 
blinded with gunny sacks. 

3. The front of the emplacement should be 
cut under to receive the leg of the tripod, thus 
bringing the gun up closer to the parapet and 
furnishing more cover for the gunner. 

4. Splinter-proof shelters should be provided 
near at hand for the members of the gun detach- 
ment. 

5. Where the enemy's trenches are near, 
the position for the emplacement should be 
selected by day and the actual work done under 
cover of darkness. 

6. The guns should be located so that they 
support each other by their fire. Alternate 
positions should be constructed. 

7. When located to enfilade straight lines of 



48 Elements of Trench Warfare 

trenches, special capioniers should be con- 
structed. 

At intervals from 800 to 
Supporting 1,500 yards along the first 
Points line, supporting points are 

established. They may con- 
sist of a fortified village or a specially prepared 
position having a "labyrinth" of trenches and 
rendered well nigh impregnable to infantry 
assault by every defensive device known to 
modern warfare. They are designed to bring 
a flanking fire to bear upon the intervening in- 
tervals with the idea that troops cannot pass 
beyond them until they are reduced. 

The following was the actual 
Village Defense scheme employed for the de- 
fense of a French village, and 
exemplifies the thoroughness with which de- 
fenses must be organized. 

The village was about 700 yards in rear of 
the front line, and had three keeps surrounded 
with wire entanglements and independent of 
each other, but with an elaborate system of 
communication trenches. Water and four days' 
rations were stored in each keep, and wells dug. 
Each of the keeps held about one company. 
The communication trenches were about 6 feet 



Field Trenches 49 

deep, used as far as possible as fire trenches, and 
well traversed. Firing platforms were revetted 
with brushwood, and shelters made all over the 
village. In addition to keeps, a series of lines 
existed in the rear of the front line, intercom- 
municating and provided with barbed wire. A 
small wood on one point of the front was de- 
fended by a network of low wire entanglements 
and a line of high wire netting. 

Every officer had to know all about his sec- 
tion and its communications with right and left. 
Telephone wires were laid low down in communi- 
cation trenches and fastened a few inches from 
ground with wooden pickets. 

Machine guns were placed so as to flank 
salients. A 65-mm. field gun was placed in the 
front line to sweep the village, and an observa- 
tion station placed in a tree. The observer 
wore a green mask and green sheet. 

Great use was made of brushwood and under- 
growth to revet steps of firing platform. 

All work was carried out by regimental officers 
and men without help from the engineers, who 
were fully employed in mining. The garrison 
of the village and the front line trenches in the 
vicinity was about one battalion, but the fire 
trenches were sufficient for three battalions. 



CHAPTER V* 

Use and Improvement of Natural 
Cover 

A screen or mask consists of hedges, crops, 
underbrush, etc., which hide the rifleman with- 
out, however, protecting him from fire. 

Cover or shelter consists of walls, earthworks, 
etc., which protect the rifleman from fire. 

On the battlefield, natural features that 
screen and shelter should be utilized as much as 
possible, as they possess the following advantages 
over artificial works : 

(a) Their organization demands less work. 

(b) Concealment is easier. 

(c) From their nature, it is difficult for the 
enemy to estimate, for a given length, the number 
of men sheltered. 

They possess, however, certain disadvantages: 

(a) The protection is sometimes so excellent 
that, morally as well as materially, it becomes 
difficult to leave the shelter. Example: quarries 
with obstructed exits. Therefore, good judg- 
ment must be exercised in the selection. 

(b) Some of them are too visible. Example: 
large hedges. In this case their range can be 
easily found. 

1 This chapter reprinted from Infantry Journal. 
50 



Use of Natural Cover 51 

As a general rule, do not occupy them uni- 
formly and do not change the appearance of the 
organized parts. 

Organization of the cover : 

To organize the cover which protects troops 
from fire, construct suitable positions for firing 
and resting. To utilize the screens which merely 
hide the troops without protecting them from 
fire, dig trenches behind these screens in the 
following maimer: 

(a) Choose the points which give the best field 
of fire. 

(b) Construct cover for firing. 

(c) Construct a shelter. 

The constructions are usually "individual" 
in the first period of work; afterwards, they are 
organized "collectively." The covers are: (1) 
for riflemen lying down, (2) for riflemen sitting 
down, and (3) for riflemen standing up. 

Individual Organization of Natural 



to 



Cover 

Examples of hasty individual cover behind 
trees, bushes, or branches: 

(a) Fallen tree (logs or branches), the height 
of which is at a maximum of 1 foot above the 
ground : 



52 Elements of Trench Warfare 




Plate 27a. — Use of the cover without improvement. 




(About 8~> 



Plate 27b. — First period. 




"•■ -.8* »,' 

<2'8) 

Plate 27c. — Second period. 
Progressive improvement of the cover. 



(b) Fallen tree, the top of which is more than 
1 foot above the ground. 



Use of Natural Cover 



53 




Plate 27d.— First period. 




Plate 27e. — Second period. 





*isg!*^^T+o«>(*r» 


} 1 
«,8« --»-' 
(26") 





Plate 27f.— Third period. 

Wood which does not afford sufficient protec- 
tion against bullets must be reinforced by earth 
at the right and against the cover 1 foot behind. 



54 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Plates 27d, 27e, and 27f show the progressive 
improvement of the cover. 



Plate 27g. — Sharp ridges, furrows, or top of a crest at 
the end of a gentle slope. 



Examples of hasty individual covers behind a 
furrow, a crest, a heap of sand or earth: 

Dig the ground as near as possible to crest A of 
the furrow in the manner indicated for the cover 
installed behind a fallen tree more than 1 foot 
high. 



Plate 27h. — Narrow furrows. 

Use the earth excavated between furrows A 
and B to build up the earth between furrows B 
and C and fill up furrow C; continue afterwards 
as for the sharp ridge. i 



Use of Natural Cover 



55 







A 




Plate 27i. — Low wall of earth, or earth and sand heaps, 
more than 2 feet high (two methods, A or B). 

(A) Lower the height about 8 inches; throw 
the earth forward. Dig a trench as indicated in 
the figure. 

(B) Make a loophole in the pile of earth, 
showing oneself as little as possible. Improve 
the firing position by making a place for the right 
leg and an elbow rest. 



56 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Examples of hasty shelters (individual) ar- 
ranged behind a large stone or heap of stones: 

A heap of stones, the top of which is 1 foot at 
a maximum above the ground : 




Plate 27j. — First period. 




Plate 27k. — Second period. 

General Organization of Natural Cover 

This consists in connecting up and coordinating 
the individual work under the direction of the 
squad commander. The work should be carried 
out on the lines adopted for the individual work; 
and the rules prescribed for the construction of 
artificial cover (profiles, depths, various shelters) 



Use of Natural Cover 



57 



should he followed as far as possible. In arrang- 
ing the cover, the squads should utilize the natural 
features of the terrain. 




Plate 27 1 — Arrangement for a mound of earth. 




Plate 27m. — Arrangement for a dry ditch. 



lyijjtyi i y 




Plate 27n. — Arrangement for a sunken road defended on 
the side towards the enemy. 



58 Elements of Trench Warfare 




Plate 27o. — Arrangement for a sunken road defended 
from the rear. 

Ditches full of water, drains, streams: 




Plate 27p. — Arrangement of a large ditch. 




Plate 27q. — Arrangement of a ditch full of water. 



Use of Natural Cover 59 

Ordinary roads, road and railroad embank- 
ments, and sunken roads: 




Plafe 27r. — Arrangement of an ordinary road defended 
on the side toward the enemy. 




o^o 



Plate 27s. — Same defended from the rear. 




Plate 27t. — : Road embankment, defended from the rear. 



60 Elements of Trench Warfare 



.+ i,s© (+sr) 



. ' ' '■' ' • 1 ^ ' -7 1 



.* . .* v 



Plate 27u. — Arrangement of a railroad embankment. 




V-«,9of-3*) 



(ra") 

Plate 2 7v. — Arrangement of a sunken road. 

Hedges and woods : 

Dig a trench behind the hedge and throw the 
earth against it; make openings in the hedge to 



Use of Natural Cover 



61 



facilitate view and fire (Plate 27 w). If the hedge 
is low, deepen the trench, but make the parapet 
.lower than the hedge which masks it. 




Plate 27w. — Arrangement of a hedge. 




••*"&tStfiZ • 



Plate 27x. — Arrangement of the edge of a wood. 

Avoid destroying the natural appearance of the 
wood ; do not cut the trees and brush on a certain 
depth, but cut off branches where necessary to 



62 Elements of Trench Warfare 



obtain a field of fire. Behind this strip cut the 
brush and small trees so as to make a path 3 to 
4 yards wide. Construct a trench behind the 
mask of trees. The parapet can be raised up to 
2 or even 3 feet. Construct abatis on the parts 
of the border of the wood, where it will not inter- 
fere with the fire. 
Walls: 



o,oo 




Plate 27y. — Arrangement of a wall 2 feet 8 inches high. 




Plate 27z. — Arrangement of a wall 8 feet high. 




Plate 28. — Arrangement of a wall more than 8 feet high 
without making loopholes. 




P»©o 



Plate 28a. — Arrangement of an iron fence 
built on a low wall. 



CHAPTER VI 
Revetments 

A revetment is a covering or facing placed 
upon an earth slope to enable it to stand at an 
inclination greater than it would naturally as- 
sume. Some revetments also increase the tena- 
city of slopes and diminish the injury by fire. 
The upper parts of revetments that may be 
struck by projectiles which penetrate the cover 
of earth must not be made of materials of large 
units which will splinter when struck. The upper 
part of the revetments is technically known as 
crowning. 

Sandbags are made of coarse 
Sandbags canvas or burlap. They are 
33 inches long and 14 inches 
wide. They are filled loosely with earth or sand 
about Yi cubic foot to a bag. Having been 
placed in position they are pounded down with 
a shovel to a rectangular form when they will fill 
a space about 20 by 13 by 5 inches. 

The sandbag revetment is constructed by lay- 
ing alternate rows of headers and stretchers, 
breaking joints. The tied ends of the headers 
and seam's of the stretchers are put into the 
parapet. Men working in pairs lay the bags 

64 



Revetments 



65 



and set them firmly in place with a spade or 
mallet. 

The advantages are : 

1. The portability of the empty bags. Only 
62 pounds per one hundred bags. 

2. They may be filled with any kind of soil. 

3. They are rapidly filled and easily plaeed in 
position. 

4. They are invaluable in making repairs. 

5. They will not splinter. 

The only disadvantage is that they are not 
durable. The cloth soon goes to decay and the 
filling material crumbles away. 

Plate 29 shows the appearance of a sandbag 
revetment as seen from the front and from the 
end. 






JESSES 




Plate 29. — Sandbag revetment. 



66 Elements of Trench Warfare 

A squad of six men with two shovels and one 
pick should fill 150 bags in an hour. One man 
uses the pick, two shovel the dirt' into the bag, 
one holds the bag open and two men tie the bags. 
Having the filled bags ready to hand ten men 
will lay 75 square feet of revetment in an hour. 
Four men lay the bags and flatten them out 
while six carry them. 

Brush is used in many 
Brush forms for revetting. Almost 

any kind will serve the pur- 
pose. For weaving, it must be live and is most 
pliable when not in leaf. It should not be more 
than 1 inch in diameter at the butt. When cut 
it should be assorted in sizes for the different 
class of revetments. Poles ^/l inches in diameter 
are cut for the supports. 

A fascine is a cylindrical 
Fascines bundle of brushwood tightly 
bound. The usual length is 
18 feet,, the diameter 9 inches, and the weight 
normally about 140 pounds. Lengths of 6 and 
9 feet, which are sometimes used, are most con- 
veniently obtained by sawing a standard fascine 
into two or three pieces. 

Fascines are made in a cradle which consists of 
five trestles, the outer ones being 16 feet apart. 



68 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The trestle is made by driving two sticks about 
63/2 feet long and 3 inches in diameter in the 
ground and lashed at the intersection as shown in 
Plate 29a. In making the cradle, plant the two 
end trestles first. Stretch a line from one to the 
other over the intersection. Place the others 4 
feet apart and lash them so that each intersec- 
tion comes fairly to the line. 

To build a fascine, straight pieces of brush, 
1 or 2 inches at the butt, are laid on, the butts 
projecting at the end 1 foot beyond the trestle. 
Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches 
cut off, or partially cut through, so that they 
will lie close. The larger, straighter brush 
should be laid on the outside, butts alternating 
in direction, and smaller stuff in the center. 
The general object is to so dispose the brush as 
to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, 
and stiffness from end to end. 

When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine 
is compressed or choked by the fascine choker 
(Plate 30), which consists of two bars, 4 feet 
long, joined 18 inches from the ends by a chain 
4 feet long. The chain is marked at 14 inches 
each way from the middle by inserting a ring 
or special link. To use, two men standing on 
opposite sides pass the chain under the brush, 



Revetments 69 



place the short ends of the handles on top and 
pass the bars, short end first, across to each 
other. They then bear down on the long ends 
until the marks on the chain come together. 
Chokers may be improvised from sticks and 
rope or wire. 




Plate 30. — Method of using the 
fascine choker. 

Binding will be done with a double turn of 
wire or tarred rope. It should be done in twelve 
places 18 inches apart, the end binders 3 inches 
outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will 
require 66 feet of wire. 

Improvised binders may be made from rods 
of live brush; hickory or hazel is the best. Place 



70 Elements of Trench Warfare 

the butt under the foot and twist the rod to 
partially separate the fibers and make it. flexible. 
A rod so prepared is called a withe. To use a 
withe, make a half-turn and twist at the smaller 
end. Pass the withe around the brush and the 
large end through the eye. Draw taut and 
double the large end back, taking two half- 
hitehes over its own standing part. 

A fascine revetment is made by placing the 
fascines as shown in Plate 31. The use of 
headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in 
loose soils only, but they greatly strengthen the 
revetment in any case. A fascine revetment 
must always be crowned with sod or bags. 




Plate 31. — Fascine revetment. 



Revetments 71 



In all brush weaving the following terms have 1 
been adopted and are convenient to use: 

Handing. — Weaving a single rod in and out 
between pickets. 

Slewing. — Weaving two or more rods together 
in the same way. 

Pairing. — Carrying two rods together, cross- 
ing each other in and out at each picket. 

Wattling. — A general term applied to the 
woven part of brush construction. 

A hurdle is a basket work made of brushwood. 
If made in pieces the usual size is 2 feet 9 inches 
by 6 feet, though the width may be varied so 
that it will cover the desired height of slope. 

A hurdle is made by describing on the ground 
an arc of a circle of 8 -foot radius and on the 
arc driving ten pickets, 8 inches apart, covering 
feet out to out. Brush is then woven in and 
out and well compacted. The concave side of 
a hurdle should be placed next the earth. It 
warps less than if made flat. 

In weaving the hurdle, begin randing at the 
middle space at the bottom. Reaching the end, 
twist the rod as described for a withe but at one 
point only, bend it around the end picket and 
work back. Start a second rod before the first 
one is quite out, slewing the two for a short dis- 



'ri 



°2 Elements of Trench Warfare 



tance. Hammer the wattling down snug on 
the pickets with a block of wood and continue 
until the top is reached. It improves the 
hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods 
paired. A pairing may he introduced in the ? 



1 f 



Plate 32. — Method of laying out hurdle. 




Plate 33 



Revetments 73 



middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra en- 
durance if it is to be used as a pavement or 
floor. If the hurdle is not to be used at once, or 
if it is to be transported, it must be sewed. The 
sewing is done with wire, twine or withes at 
each end and in the middle, with stitches about 
6 inches long, as shown hi Plate 33. About 
40 feet of wire is required to sew one hurdle. 
No. 14 is about the right size, and a coil of 100 
pounds will sew forty hurdles. Three men 
should make a hurdle in two hours, two wattling 
and the third preparing the rods. 

Continuous Hurdle. — If conditions permit the 
revetment to be built in place, the hurdle is 
made continuous for considerable lengths. The 
pickets may be larger; they are driven further 
apart, 12 or 18 inches, and the brush may be 
heavier. The construction is more rapid. The 
pickets are driven with a little more slant than 
is intended and must be anchored to the parapet. 
A line of poles, with wire attached at intervals of 
two or three pickets, will answer. The wires 
should be made fast to the pickets after the 
wattling is done. They will interfere with the 
weaving if fastened sooner. Two men should 
make 4 yards of continuous hurdling of ordinary 
height in one hour. 



74 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Brush Revetment. — Pickets may be set as 
above described and the brush laid inside them 
without weaving, being held in place by bring- 
ing the earth up with it. In this case the 
anchors must be fastened before the brush laying- 
begins. The wires are not much in the way in 
this operation. 

Gabion Making. — A gabion is a cylindrical 
basket with open ends, made of brush woven 
on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles. 
The usual size is 2 feet outside diameter and 2 




Plate 34. — Gabion. 



Revetments 75 



feet 9 inches height of wattling. On account of 
the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is re- 
quired for gabions than will do for hurdles. The 
gabion form is made of wood, 21 inches diameter, 
with equidistant notches around the circumfer- 
ence, equal in number to the number of pickets 
to be used, usually eight to fourteen; less if the 
brush is large and stiff, more if small and pli- 
able. The notches should be of such depth 
that the pickets will project to 1 inch outside 
the circle. The pickets should be 13^ to 2 inches 
in diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, sharpened, 
half at the small and half at the large end. 




Plate 35. 

To Make a Gabion. — The form is placed on 
the ground. The pickets are driven vertically 
in the ground, large and small ends down, alter- 
nately. The dorm is then raised a foot and held 
by placing a lashing around outside the pickets, 
tightened with a rack stick. (See Plate 36.) 



76 Elements of Trench Warfare 




■4 

Plate 36. — Forming the gabion 
supports. 

The wattling is randed or slewed from the 
form up. The form is then dropped down, the 
gabion inverted, and the wattling completed. 
If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pair- 
ing will make a better wattling than randing. 
If not for immediate use, the gabion must be 
sewed as described for hurdles, the same quan- 
tity of wire being required. 

The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is com- 
pleted by cutting off the tops of the pickets, 
1 inch from the web, the bottom 3 inches. 



Revetments 



77 



The latter are sharpened after cutting and driv- 
ing a pairing picket through the middle of its 
length and a little to one side of the axis. Three 
men should make a gabion in an hour. 

Gabions may be made without the forms, but 
the work is slower and not so good. The circle 
is struck on the ground and the pickets driven 
at the proper points. The weaving is done 
from the ground up. The entire time of one 
man is required to keep the pickets in their 
proper positions. 

If brush is scarce, gabions may be made with 
6 inches of wattling at each end, the middle 
being left open. In filling, the open parts may 
be lined with straw, grass, brush, or grain sacks 
to keep the earth from running out. 

Gabion Revetment. — The use of gabions in 
revetment is illustrated in Plate 37. If more 




Plate 37. — Methods of use of gabion. 



78 Elements of Trench Warfare 

than two tiers are used, the separating fascines 
should be anchored back. Gabion revetment 
should be crowned with sod or sandbag. 

The advantages of gabion revetment are very 
great. It can be put in place without extra 
labor, faster and with less exposure than any 
other. It is self-supporting and gives cover 
from view and partial cover from fire quicker 
than any other form. Several forms of gabions 
made of material other than brush have been 
used. Some of them are sheet iron, empty 
barrels and hoops. The disadvantages of iron 
are that it splinters badly, is heavy, and has not 
given satisfaction. If any special materials are 
supplied, the methods of using them will, in 
view of the foregoing explanation, be obvious. 

Timber or Pole Revetment. — Poles too large for 
use in any other way may be cut to length and 
stood on end to form a revetment. The lower 
end should be in a small trench and have a 
waling piece in front of them. There must also 
be a waling piece or cap at or near the top, 
anchored back. Plate 38 shows this form. 

Miscellaneous Revetments. — Any receptacles for 
earth which will make a staple, compact pile, 
such as boxes, baskets, cans, etc., may be used 
for a revetment. Canvas or burlap stretched 



Revetments 



79 



behind pickets is being used to a great extent on 
the battle fronts of Europe. If the soil will make 
adobe, an excellent revetment may be made of 
them, but it will not stand wet weather. 




Plate 38. — Timber revetment. 



CHAPTER VII 
Working Parties 

The infantryman will always be called upon to 
construct the trench which he is to occupy. 
Each company is provided with portable tools, 
which the men carry, and each infantry regiment 
is provided with tools for the purpose. The 
digging tools consist of picks and shovels. 

When it has been decided to locate fire trenches 
along a certain line officers will lay out the cutting 
lines and mark them with tape or otherwise. A 
company will be assigned for the construction of 
a definite section of the trench. 

Let us work out the procedure, assuming that 
the work may go on unmolested by the enemy. 
Such, however, is not usually the case. The 
enemy will do anything in his power to prevent 
construction work. If, however, we are familiar 
with the details of the work and know how to go 
about it in an orderly and systematic manner 
under conditions of noninterference by the 
enemy, we will be able to carry out these details 
of organization and procedure under more or 
less trying conditions when the time comes. 

Officers have established the trace of the trench 
and marked the cutting lines. It is the ordinary 

80 



Working Parties 81 

traversed type, 18 feet bays with traverses 5 
feet wide and 5 feet deep, as shown in Plate 14. 

The company is composed of, say twelve 
squads organized into three platoons of four 
squads each. Six bays, of the trench have been 
assigned to the organization for construction. 
This gives a task to each platoon of two bays, 
including one complete traverse and a half 
traverse on each flank. 

Tools have been issued to the first and third 
squads of each platoon, the front rank men 
carrying picks and the rear rank men shovels. 

The company is marched in column of squads 
to the site of the trench, approaching it from the 
rear, and halted with the head of the column 
fifteen paces in rear of and opposite the right of 
the section assigned; that is, in rear of the first 
bay of the section. The second platoon is then 
conducted by the platoon commander and halted 
with its head opposite the third bay. The 
third platoon is in like manner conducted to the 
rear of the fifth bay. Each platoon commander 
then has the two rear squads of his platoon, 
conducted to a point behind the bay on his left, 
i. e., the second, fourth and sixth respectively. 
This allows two squads for the work in each 



82 Elements of Trench Warfare 

s 

hay, the leading squad furnishing the first relief 
and the rear squad the second. 

The leading squad of each column is then 
marched to a point two paces in rear of the rear 
cutting line of the trench, where they take off 
their packs and lay their rifles on them. The 
corporal and his rear rank man fall out. The 
corporal assigns tasks, number ones to the first 
2-yard section, number twos to the second and 
number threes the third. 

The tasks are shown in Plate 39. The corporal 
superintends the work. Number 4 rear rank 
marks out the cutting lines with his shovel 
around the traverses and starts work on them. 

Experience has shown that the best method of 
dividing up the work is to group the men in 
pairs, one man with a pick and one with a shovel 
and to prescribe that they relieve each other. 

The leading squads assigned to each bay work 
at top speed for 30 minutes. At the end of the 
twenty-eighth minute the corporal of the rear 
squad brings his men up and deploys them. At a 
signal from the platoon commander the men of 
the first and third squads drop their tools, get 
out of the trench, and proceed to the rear, where 
they rest. The men of the second and fourth 
squads jump into the trench and take up the 



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84 Elements of Trench Warfare 

task. At the end of another 30 minutes this 
procedure is again carried out. 

This scheme of assigning tasks and procedure 
was given an exhaustive test in 1915 in the course 
of testing out various types of intrenching tools. 
It worked to perfection. 

The bays are first completed, after which the 
traverses begun by No. 4 rear rank are finished 
up. Great care should be taken to make the 
dimensions of the trench as accurate as possible. 
The squad leader is held responsible for this. 
He should provide himself with two sticks. On 
one the following lengths are laid off: 1 foot, 
width of berms, and height of parapet; 1 foot 4 
inches, width of firing banquet, height of firing 
banquet above bottom of trench, and width of 
bottom of trench. The other stick has the follow- 
ing lengths measured on it : 4 feet, depth of trench 
from ground surface to the top of firing banquet; 
5 feet 4 inches, depth of trench from ground 
surface to bottom of trench. (See Plate 15 for 
dimensions of standing trench.) 

When the circumstances are such that the 
work of trench construction is interfered with by 
the enemy, a modification of the system outlined 
here will have to be made, but the details should 
be adhered to as closely as possible. 



Working Parties 85 

When night work is necessary the trace should 
be staked out before complete darkness sets in. 
If the trace can only be made after dark, visible 
reference points needed with white paper, white 
tape or screened flashlights may be utilized. 
Stick to the details of the deployment, the laying 
out of tasks and the procedure as indicated for 
day work as closely as possible. Avoid making 
any more noise than is absolutely necessary; 
allow no smoking and require such conversation 
as is necessary to be made in whispers. Protect 
the workers by a system of patrols to the front. 

Noncommissioned officers are held responsible 
for a systematic and orderly execution of the 
work being performed by their units. The cap- 
tain cannot be everywhere along the line. He 
has to depend upon the platoon and squad 
leaders in the work. That is why you should 
study it and know about it so as to be able to 
make good when the time comes. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Grenade Warfare 

The use of hand grenades as an implement of 
warfare dates back many centuries. History 
records their use as far hack as 153G. Up to the 
close of the eighteenth century soldiers were 
trained in the throwing of hand grenades, and 
for this reason were called "grenadiers." At 
first there were a few in each regiment, later 
entire companies were formed, and finally each 
infantry unit that corresponds to our battalion 
of today had its own grenadier unit. 

Then there was a period of time when more 
open formations were adopted, when there was 
less opportunity for the employment of grenades 
and their use was practically eliminated from the 
battlefield and confined to sieges, where they 
have been used more or less since the dawn of 
military history. 

With the advent of the Russo-Japanese War 
came the extensive use of trenches on the battle- 
field, and with the trenches came the hand 
grenades which were used in large quantities by 
both sides. This was especially the case when 
the fighting lines came to close quarters and in 
the assaults against the forts at Port Arthur. 

86 



Grenade Warfare 87 

When the European war resolved itself into 
trench warfare, such as it is today, the use of 
hand-thrown projectiles assumed an importance 
heretofore never attained, and today we find 
ourselves employing hand grenades in every 
phase of the conflict. 

Employment of Grenadiers 

Grenadiers are employed on both the offensive 
and defensive. They accompany the attacking 
lines in the advance on the enemy's positions, 
they clear the fire trenches and communication 
trenches after parts of the enemy's lines have 
been taken, and on the defense they assist the 
riflemen in repelling attack and engage the enemy 
whenever he has obtained a lodgment in the 
trenches. 

While every infantryman 

Organization receives a certain amount of 
instruction in grenade throw- 
ing, there should be a grenadier squad in each 
platoon specially instructed and trained in this 
most effective auxiliary method of trench war- 
fare. Not all men possess the temperament and 
qualifications necessary to make efficient gren- 
adiers. Hence the personnel of the grenadier 
squad should be carefully selected. Strong 



88 Elements of Trench Warfare 

physique, personal courage and steadiness in 
emergencies are the qualifications that count. 
Men fond of outdoor sports, other things being 
equal, will be found the best. 

The grenadier squad is organized as follows: 

Front Rank. 

No. 1. First bayonet man. 

No. 2. Second bayonet man. 

No. 3. Grenade thrower. 

No. 4. Squad leader, observer and director. 

Rear Rank. 

No. 1. First carrier. 

No. 2. Second carrier. 

No. 3. Barricader. 

No. 4. Barricader. 

The duties of the several 

Duties members of the squad vary 

under different circumstances 
of their tactical employment which will be fully 
explained below. In general they are as follows : 
Bayonet Men. — The bayonet men move in 
advance of the grenade throwers. When the 
grenade thrower has thrown his grenades into 
the objective trench the bayonet men must be 
ready to take instant advantage of the temporary 
demoralization of the enemy caused by the 



Grenade Warfare 89 

explosions and clear the way for a repetition of 
the operation. 

Grenade Thrower. — The grenade thrower must 
be ready and able to throw a grenade at once 
whenever the bayonet men or squad leader may 
direct. 

Squad Leader. — The squad leader directs the 
operations of the squad. He goes wherever his 
presence is necessary. He keeps a close watch 
to the flanks. He replaces casualties and attends 
to the forwarding of grenades to the thrower. 
He acts as a grenade thrower whenever he can 
assist the operations in that capacity. 

Carriers. — The carriers carry as many grenades 
as possible, and when their supply is exhausted 
they go to the reserve depots and replenish. 
They are responsible for a continuous supply of 
grenades to the throwers. 

Barricaders. — The barricaders are charged 
with the construction of barricades. They carry 
sandbags and tools for filling them. In addition 
they carry as many grenades as possible. They 
hold themselves in readiness to go forward and 
construct a barricade or cover at any point 
designated by the squad leader. 

General. — All the men of the squad must be 
trained and prepared to take over the duties of 



90 Elements of Trench Warfare 

any other member. Before undertaking any 
operation each man of the squad should 
thoroughly understand the part he is to play in it. 
Formation. — The formation for the several 
classes of tactical employment will be explained 
when each is considered below. 

Offensive Operations 

When it has been decided to attack a certain 
sector of the enemy's position a detailed recon- 
naissance is made with a view to locating and 
developing every element of the position, de- 
tailed plans are made and imparted to all con- 
cerned. (See Chapter XI.) 

The phases of the attack consist of: (1) The 
artillery preparation; (2) the infantry assault; 
(3) the occupation and organization of the 
captured position, and preparation to meet a 
counter attack. 

During the course of the artillery preparation 
grenadier squads work their way across "no 
man's land" and establish themselves sufficiently 
close to throw grenades into the fire trenches. 
Failing in this they accompany the assaulting 
troops. 

When they are able to work up close they cover 
the advance of the infantry assaulting lines by 



Grenade Warfare 91 

showering grenades into the enemy's fire trenches 
after the curtain of artillery fire has been extended 
back into his position to prevent the supports 
and reserves from coming up to the front. 

All men of the squad carry as many grenades 
as possible and such number as the squad 
leader may designate act as throwers, while the 
others act as carriers and prepare the grenades 
for throwing. Accurate throwing, properly ob- 
served and distributed, will greatly assist in 
preparing for a successful assault. 

Clearing Fire Trendies 

No matter how well the infantry assault on the 
enemy's fire trenches may be conducted, it rarely 
succeeds in occupying the hostile position 
throughout its entire length. Casualties, loss 
of direction, and unexpected obstacles encoun- 
tered are bound to break up the assaulting line 
more or less, thereby leaving gaps in the captured 
position. Furthermore the attack on a line 
of trenches takes place on a relatively small 
front by a large number of men. When the 
trenches are finally reached and a lodgment 
effected there will be great overcrowding. 
Provision must be made immediately for 
extending the line, otherwise the casualties 



92 Elements of Trench Warfare 

at these points will be exceedingly heavy. 

It is the particular duty of the grenadier 
squads to clear these "gaps" of the enemy as 
quickly as possible. For this purpose an efficient 
and well-organized storming party must be im- 
mediately available. 

Let us say that, after careful artillery prepara- 
tion, the assault has reached the enemy's fire 
trench. There is much overcrowding at the 
points where lodgments have been effected. 
There is a gap in the line between two adjacent 
elements. How is this cleared of the enemy? 

The grenadier squad immediately forms for 
action. Two bayonet men are in the lead, 
followed by the grenade thrower, who is in turn 
followed by the two carriers. Further to the 
rear are the two barricaders, who carry a reserve 
supply of grenades in addition to their sandbags 
and shovels. The squad leader is where he can 
best direct the operations. 

The grenadier squad is formed as shown in 
the first position, Plate 40. 

1. The grenade thrower puts grenades: (1) 
into bay 1, at A; (2) into bay 2, at D; (3) into 
bay 1, at B; (4) into the traverse leg at C. 

2. When the four grenades have exploded the 
bayonet men rush into bay 1, the leader ad vane- 



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Grenade Warfare 93 

ing into the first leg of the traverse trench below 
B, while his mate remains in the bay for a 
moment. 

3. The squad leader rushes around the tra- 
verse to A, followed by the grenade thrower. 

4. When the bay and the next traverse pas- 
sages are all cleared of the enemy the word 
"O. K." is passed back to the squad leader by 
the bayonet men. The bayonet men get into 
their proper positions and the remainder of the 
squad rush into the cleared bay 1 and prepare 
for the further clearing of succeeding bays in the 
same manner as described above. 

Take the diagram on Plate 40. Study it out 
in connection with the text and you will see 
how this system works out. 

The men work in pairs, the two bayonet men 
together; the two carriers behind the thrower; 
the two barricaders sufficiently far to the rear 
to be protected by a corner of solid earth. The 
squad leader must of necessity go where his 
presence is necessary. Usually he stays as near 
the grenade thrower as possible. 

When the enemy's grenadier parties are also 
very active in the sector, the distances between 
pairs are -extended so that no more than two 
men are exposed in any one bay or traverse leg. 



94 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The formation of the squad must be preserved 
as long as possible. You will appreciate that 
when losses occur the squad leader will have to 
replace men and the formation will have to be 
modified to meet the changed conditions. This 
makes it absolutely necessary that every member 
of the squad be competent to take over the 
duties of any other member. 

When the squad has reached the limit of its 
advance the barricaders will come forward and 
construct a barricade in such position that it is 
well in view from a corner some distance behind. 

No passing of bombs forward from man to 
man is permitted. When the first carrier's 
supply is exhausted he returns to the rear to 
secure a fresh supply from the reserve grenade 
carriers who are following the grenade squad, 
and who have by now advanced to a point where 
their supply is available. As soon as his supply 
is replenished he returns to his proper position 
in the formation. Should the second carrier 
run out of grenades the squad leader may cause 
one of the barricaders to take all the grenades in 
the possession of the two and replace him while 
he goes to the rear to secure a fresh supply. 

In the meantime other grenadier squads are 
clearing out the communication and supervision 




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Grenade Warfare 95 

trenches, blocking up the exits to dugouts and 
destroying machine-gun detachments that have 
thus far escaped. The assaulting troops have 
passed on towards the second line, covered by 
the curtain of fire of the artillery. 

Clearing Communication Trenches 

The clearing of communication trenches is 
effected much in the same manner as explained 
for the fire trench. The grenadier squad is 
organized and formed in the same manner. The 
squad works its way into the communication 
trench by bombing each leg until they arrive at 
a point where the formation, as illustrated in 
Plate 41, can be assumed. The grenade thrower 
throws grenades into the trench at B and then 
at C. As soon as these have exploded the bayo- 
net men take advantage of the confusion to 
advance into the leg A-B under cover of the 
shoulder b, the squad leader and thrower ad- 
vance to A, the carriers to the point formerly 
occupied by the squad leader, and the barri- 
caders to the point formerly occupied by the 
carriers. The thrower then puts grenades into 
the trench at C and then at D, after which the 
whole squad advances another notch as formerly 
explained. 



96 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Where island traverses are encountered the 
thrower puts a grenade on each side of the 
traverse and one in the rear of it. The bayonet 
men, one on a side, assault around the traverse 
and meet on the far side, and the operation pro- 
ceeds as heretofore explained. 

Night Operations 

The grenadier squads may be called upon at 
night, to perform any of the services that are 
theirs by day, and in addition may be called 
upon to make night reconnaissances. For this 
work the men must be able to organize and re- 
organize the squad quickly and noiselessly. 
The throwers must be particularly efficient. 
There must be the highest order of team work. 
Grenadier patrols are sent 
Grenadier out at night to make recon- 
Patrols naissances of the enemy's lines 

with a view to getting infor- 
mation which may include: 

1. Location and organization of line. 

2. The length of line occupied. 

3 . Numbers and disposition of occupying troops . 

4 . To get an accurate description of the ground. 

5. To locate observation and listening posts 
or any other advanced positions. 



Grenade Warfare 97 

6. To locate machine guns. 

These patrols may consist of from two men to 
the entire grenadier squad. In a patrol of six 
or eight men two of them carry rifles and belts, 
bayonets fixed. The remaining members of the 
patrol carry no equipment except a haversack 
filled with grenades. The grenades are used 
only in case of emergency. It is a reconnoiter- 
ing patrol charged with gaining information and 
therefore does not enter into an encounter with 
the enemy except as a last resort. 

The men move or crawl without noise and 
take advantage of all cover that the ground 
affords. If they suspect they are observed, 
they should "freeze" to the ground and remain 
absolutely motionless. On dark nights it is 
easy to lose the direction and for the men to 
lose one another. Every device or scheme to 
lessen risks in this respect must be employed. 
The men may tie themselves lightly together so 
they will not proceed in a bunch and at the same 
time retain connection with each other. 

Notes on Grenade Warfare 

The first step in the training of a grenadier is 
to overcome his fear of the grenade itself. This 



98 Elements of Trench Warfare 

is accomplished by first having him practice fuse 
lighting with dummy grenades having live fuses. 
The men will be impressed with the fact that the 
grenades are dangerous weapons and that famili- 
arity in handling them must not be permitted 
to degenerate into carelessness. 

The next step towards efficiency is the devel- 
opment of accuracy of throwing. For short 
distances it may be lobbed from the shoulder 
by a motion similar to "putting the shot." 
Stick grenades may be thrown for a short dis- 
tance like throwing a dart. In the trenches the 
grenade should be thrown with an overhand 
motion like the bowler of a cricket ball, as there 
is danger of exploding them by knocking the 
hand against the back of the trench. 

The men should be taught to throw from all 
positions — standing, sitting, kneeling and prone. 

Should the grenade with a time fuse be dropped 
in the act of throwing, there is time to pick it up 
and throw it out of the trench before it explodes. 
Under no circumstances must it be allowed to 
explode in the trench. 

Communication throughout the squad in ac- 
tion should be maintained at all times. System 
is required to insure the throwers having a 



Grenade Warfare 99 

supply of grenades on hand all the time and that 
casualties are promptly replaced. 

Quick action is essential to success. Crawling 
and stalking give the enemy what he is waiting 
for. 

Arrangements to assist a storming party by 
rifle and machine-gun fire are of the utmost 
value and should be provided whenever possible. 
Care must be taken to provide a signal which 
will mark the progress of the storming party 
through the trenches. A helmet held up on a 
bayonet will do this. 

All grenadiers must be especially trained in 
the filling of sandbags and making sandbag 
barricades. 

The work of the observer is difficult and re- 
quires much practice. He must give his direc- 
tions to the thrower in no uncertain terms. 
When the thrower has missed his objective the 
observer will give positive directions for the 
next throw. Instead of saying "A yard too 
much to the left," he will say, "Throw a yard 
to the right." Positive directions, even if only 
half heard, are of some use; negative directions 
are certain to be both confused and confusing. 
The observer should be expert in the use of the 
periscope. 



100 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Hand Grenades and Petards 

The hand grenade used by our allies on the 
western front is the bracelet grenade with 
automatic firing mechanism and consists of a 
ball of cast iron filled with an explosive and of a 
leather bracelet which is fastened to the wrist. 
To the bracelet is attached a piece of rope about 
30 centimeters long, having an iron hook at its 
end. 

Just before the grenade is thrown, the hook is 
engaged in the ring of the roughened wire of the 
friction primer placed inside the fuse plug which 
closes the cast iron ball. When the grenade is 
thrown, the ring with the primer wire, held back 
by the hook of the bracelet, is wrenched off by a 
sudden movement of withdrawal from the wrist 
and the fuse is fired. The explosion takes place 
four or five seconds later. 

This grenade is supplied to the fighting zone 
ready for use. It is quite complicated. It can 
be thrown about 25 meters. 

The German grenade is composite; it can be 
thrown by hand or fired from a rifle. As a hand 
missile, it is used at short distances, 15 to 20 
meters. It is composed of a copper rod to the 
extremity of which is fixed a cast iron cylinder, 



Grenade Warfare 



101 



grooved to facilitate its breaking into small 
pieces at the moment of explosion. The explo- 
sive is placed inside this cylinder. A copper 
tube, also containing some explosive, is placed in 
the interior. It is surmounted by a complicated 
system for closing the grenade and for automatic 
ignition by percussion, which results in at least 
50 per cent of misfires. 




Plate 41b. — British hand grenade No. 1. 

a. Removable cap. /. Handle. 

b. Detonator holder. g. Safety pin. 

c. Detonator. h. Firing pin. 

d. Explosive charge. *. Cast iron ring. 

e. Wood block. ;'. Streamer. 

Used with the rifle, this grenade has a maximum 
range of 400 meters. At the extremity opposite 
the grenade, the copper rod ends in a copper 
stem about 3 centimeters in length, movable 
about the axis of the rod. This stem is covered 




Plate 41c. — The latest type 
British hand grenade. 

a. Percussion cap. 

b. Firing pin. 

c. Safety pin. When in place 
prevents firing pin from striking 
primer. It is removed just be- 
fore throwing the grenade. 

d. Primer. 

e. Chamber filled with high 
explosive. 

/. Cast iron shell, serrated. 
g. Wooden handle. 
ft. Streamers, to keep the 
grenade head-on. 



Grenade Warfare 103 

with a copper sleeve of slight thickness, which is 
attached to it only at the extremity fastened to 
the rod. The diameter of the exterior of the 
sleeve must be such that it can be pushed into 
the gun barrel without pressure. To fire the 
grenade, a blank cartridge is placed in the 
chamber of the rifle; the quantity of powder left 
in the cartridge is regulated according to the 
distance at which the missile is to be thrown. At 
the moment of firing, the explosive gases pene- 
trate between the sleeve and the stem and jam 
the sleeve against the grooves of the barrel. 
The sleeve and the stem, which is attached to it, 
take a movement of rotation in the grooves of 
the barrel, wdiich insures the direction of the 
missile and the maximum efficiency of the explo- 
sive gases of the cartridge. 

The bracelet grenade and the German grenade 
just described have to be made in a factory. 
Attempts have been made to construct similar 
missiles with the explosives which are at hand at 
the front, cheddite and melinite. Several kinds 
have been made : a primed cartridge and a primed 
hand petard, fitted on a wooden paddle, a pre- 
served meat tin can filled with explosive, etc. 

The Germans have hahd petards similar to 
those of the Allies but with different explosives. 



104 Elements of Trench Warfare 



These missiles are primed by a detonator and a 
slow match and can be thrown about 30 meters.* 
The discharge takes place either automatically^ 
or by tinder. They are made on the spot and 
very rapidly. The assaulting troops carry them 
in baskets or strung on a circle of wire carried on 
the shoulder. 




Pl\tj: 4 Id. — Throwing hand grenades. 

Grenades and petards constitute a terrible 
weapon. These projectiles exert considerable 
moral effect owing to the violence of their explo- 
sion and the awful wounds they occasion, and 
they make it possible to reach the enemy at points 
where it is impossible to use the rifle and bayonet. 



CHAPTER IX 
Gas Warfare 

Germany first made use of poisonous and as- 
phyxiating gases on the field of battle. It has 
become an accepted element in the present war. 
Every soldier should, therefore, have a knowl- 
edge of the various ways in which gas is employed 
in the attack, as well as the measures to be 
taken to counteract its effect in the defense. 

The two methods of disseminating the gas 
over the battlefield are by emanation and 
grenades charged with it. 

This method has for its ob- 
Emanation ject to create a poisonous or 
irritant atmosphere. This is 
accomplished by means of the arsenic and 
phosphorous gas being forced through tubes in 
the direction of the enemy or by means of 
liquefied chlorine, bromide, phosgene and sul- 
phuretted hydrogen gas stored in cylinders under 
high pressure. To be successful the gas attack 
must be attended by the following conditions. 

1. The weather must be comparatively calm 
with a wind blowing in the direction of the enemy 
at about 5 miles an hour. If the wind is too 
strong the gas will be carried over the enemy's 

105 



106 Elements of Trench Warfare 

trenches so rapidly that it will not settle in them. 
If the wind to too light the gas will be carried up 
into the air and disseminate or may even be 
blown back into our own trenches, in which case 
chloride of lime scattered about freely will dis- 
perse them. 

2. There must be no rain, for that would 
quickly disseminate the gas and negative the 
effect. 

3. The attack must come as a surprise. If 
the elements of surprise are missing and the 
enemy has time to take protective measures, the 
effect is lost. If the surprise is complete, the 
enemy trenches should be emptied very quickly. 

4. The gas used must be heavier than the air, 
so that it will sift into the enemy's trenches as it 
passes them. It is impracticable to decide upon 
any definite hour for launching the gas attack. 
Everything depends upon the direction and 
velocity of the wind. If an hour has been tenta- 
tively designated and the wind changes, the 
attack will have to be postponed. 

When an assault follows the gas attack the 
men should wear the smoke helmets for at least 
30 minutes after the dissemination has ceased; 
in fact they must not be removed until the order 
to do so is given by the officer commanding the 



Gas Warfare 107 

attack. You will appreciate that the enemy's 
machine gunners may have better protection 
than the men in the bays of the trenches. 

In this method the gas dis- 
Shell semination is effected by means 

and Grenade of shells or bombs being fired 
Method into the enemy's trenches con- 

taining the desired substances 
which are released and give off irritant fumes on 
explosion. The grenades used weigh about 1 
pound. They are similar in appearance to the 
ordinary tin can grenade. Their effect in a trench 
will continue for 20 to 30 minutes. In the attack 
a large number should be concentrated in a 
particular area to produce a large volume of gas. 
They are thrown by hand, trench mortar or 
catapult. 

Surprise must be guarded 
Defense against in every possible way. 

The direction of the wind 
must be continually watched, and when its 
velocity and direction are specially favorable 
the protective measures must be kept ready for 
instant use and special observers posted. Pre- 
vious to an attack the enemy may remain com- 
paratively quiet for several days. Noises like 
the moving of sheet iron may be heard. Pre- 



108 Elements of Trench Warfare 

parations may be observed along the position. 
When the attack starts a hissing noise is heard; 
this latter is one of the indications that may be 
evident at night. 

Each man on duty in the 
Helmets trenches is provided with two 

smoke helmets, specially de- 
vised and constructed so as to absorb the gas 
and neutralize its effect, and which if properly 
cared for and used will provide complete protec- 
tion from any substance likely to be used by the 
enemy. They are fitted with a valve tube 
through which to breathe and with goggles to 
see through. There are certain rules prescribed 
for their care and use. 

1. They must not be removed from the pro- 
tective covering except for actual use against an 
attack. 

2. When the helmet has been used once it 
should be replaced by a new one. 

Dummy gas helmets will be 

Dummy provided in each organization 

Helmets by which the men may be 

practiced in putting them on. 

The men must be thoroughly drilled in the 

methods to be employed. 



Gas Warfare 



109 



The following directions accompany the hel- 
mets issued to the British Army. When our 
helmets are issued it is probable that each will 
be accompanied by a complete set of rules for 
its use and full instructions for the method of 
getting into it and for its care and preservation. 




Plate 40a. — Gas helmet. 



110 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Direction for Use and Care of Tube Helmets 

These helmets are the same 
Description as the smoke helmet already 
issued, except that stronger 
chemicals are added and a tube valve provided 
through which to breathe out. The tube valve 
makes the helmet cooler and saves chemicals 
from being affected by the breath. The wearer 
cannot breathe in through the tube valve; this 
is intended for breathing out only. 

Remove paper cap from 
Directions mouthpiece of tube valve. 
for Use Remove service cap. Pull hel- 

met over head. Adjust so 
that goggles are over eyes. Tuck in skirt of 
helmet under coat collar and button coat so as 
to close in skirt of helmet. Hold the tube 
lightly in lips or teeth like stem of pipe, so as 
to be able to breathe in past it and out through it. 
Breathe in through mouth and nose, using the 
air inside the helmet. Breathe out through tube only. 

1. Do not- remove the hel- 
Directions for met from its waterproof case 
Care of Tube except to use for protection 

Helmet against gas. 

2. Never use your tube 
helmet for practice or drill. Special helmets 



Gas Warfare 111 

are kept in each company for instruction only. 
Should the goggles become misty during use 
they can be cleared by rubbing them gently 
against the forehead. 

When lacrimatory gases are used goggles 
affording mechanical protection may be worn, 
as these gases are not likely to irritate the lungs, 
though they sometimes produce sickness. 

If a soldier does not possess 
Improvised one of the official pattern 
Methods respirators, the following meas- 
ures will be found useful: 

1. Wet and wring out any woolen article, such 
as a stocking or muffler, so as to form a thick pad 
large enough to cover the nose and mouth, and 
press firmly over both. 

2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief, 
a pad of about three handfuls of earth, preferably 
damp, and tie it firmly over the mouth and nose. 

3. A wet cloth pulled down over the eyes will 
be found useful as additional protection, especially 
against certain gases other than chlorine or when 
the gas is too strong for the ordinary respirator. 

4. A stocking, wetted with water and soda 
solution or tea, folded into eight folds and 
firmly held or tied over the nose. 

5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and 



112 Elements of Trench Warfare 

held or tied. If the sock or comforter has been 
soaked in soda solution it will still act efficiently 
when dry, though, if possible, it should be moist. 
The spare tapes from puttees may be used for 
tying on the sock. 

6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag, 
woolen scarf or comforter, soaked in urine, then 
wrung out to allow of free breathing and tied 
tightly over the nose and mouth. 

In the absence of any other cloths, the flannel 
waistbands issued for winter use could be used 
for this purpose. 

Knapsack sprayers are is- 
Knapsack sued for use to clear gases out 
Sprayers of the trenches after the cloud 

has blown over. A man with 
the sprayer on his back (and wearing his smoke 
helmet) slowly traverses the trench, working 
the spray. If this is not done the heavy poison- 
ous gas may linger in the trench for days and 
be a source of great danger. 

If supports or reinforcements enter a trench 
charged with gas, they should be preceded by a 
man using a sprayer. 

Sprayers are charged with sodium thiosul- 
phate — more commonly known as "hypo" — 



Gas Warfare 113 



6 pounds being dissolved in a bucket of water and 
a handful of ordinary washing soda added. 

Garden syringes and buckets may be used if 
sprayers are not available, but these are not so 
effective. Sprayers should be charged before 
they are taken up to the trenches, and should 
be kept ready for immediate use. 

Every officer defending a trench against an 
enemy gas attack should endeavor to collect 
information whenever possible, to be sent to 
headquarters through the usual channels. Par- 
ticularly valuable is the capture of apparatus 
used by the enemy either for disseminating gas 
or for protection against it. If a shell attack is 
made, unexploded shells or portions of them 
should be sent through to headquarters at once. 
The time of day, duration of attack, color, taste 
or smell of gas used, effect on the eyes, breathing, 
and all other symptoms should be noted. New 
gases may be used at any time, and speedy infor- 
mation greatly forwards the adoption of preven- 
tive measures. 



CHAPTER X 
Service in the Trenches 

Preparing to enter upon a 

Preparations period of service in the trenches 

for Entering the company commander 

Trenches makes a complete inspection 

of the company which includes : 

1. Inspection of rifles and ammunition. 

2. Inspection of equipment, contents of packs, 
intrenching tools, field glasses, wire cutters, first- 
aid packets, emergency rations, gas helmets, 
identification tags, canteens, clothing, etc. 

3. Canteens to be filled with water. 

4. Test bayonets, fix and unfix. 

0. Have company fill magazines. 

The company commander 

Inspection of precedes the company into 

Section the trenches and makes a tour 

and inspection of the section 

assigned, which includes : 

1. Layout of the trenches: fire trench, super- 
vision trench, communication trenches, machine- 
gun positions, snipers' positions, listening and 
observation trenches, dugouts, latrines, etc. 

2. Locate telephones, reserve ammunition and 
munitions depots, water supply, gas alarms, 

114 



Service in the Trenches 115 

tools and any trench accessories and utilities that 
may be included in the section. 

3. Get any information of the enemy that may 
be of value Trom the outgoing company com- 
mander. 

The company commander 

Tactical will then make his tactical 

Disposition dispositions. In occupying 

the trenches a certain section 

of the line is assigned to each company. This 

section contains so many bays of the trench. 

The following dispositions are suggested as 

meeting the requirements under our organization : 

1. The company is organized into four platoons 
of four squads each. 

2. The section of the line assigned to the 
company contains eight bays. 

3. Support No. 1 consists of the first and second 
platoons. 

4. Support No. 2 consists of the third and 
fourth platoons. 

5. From Support No. 1: Two squads of the 
first platoon occupy bays 1 and 2; two squads of 
the second platoon occupy bays 3 and 4. 

6. From Support No. 2: Two squads of the 
third platoon occupy bays 5 and 6; two squads 
of the fourth platoon occupy bays 7 and 8. 



Service in the Trenches 117 

7. Each squad establishes a double sentinel 
post in the bay assigned to it and the remaining 
members go into the squad shelters just in rear 
of the bays. This gives three reliefs for a double 
sentinel post and allows one extra man to be 
utilized as "runner," etc. 

8. The remainder of the company is estab- 
lished in the company dugouts. 

9. Depending upon the length of the tours of 
duty of the company in the first line trenches, 
the squads are changed according to a system 
that will have to be varied to suit the occasion, 
the squads in support taking their place in the 
fire trench and those in the fire trench returning 
to the support. 

Platoons enter by not more 

Going into than two squads at one time, 

the Trenches thus minimizing the danger 

from shell fire. The platoon 

commander will explain to his squad leaders the 

extent of trench to be taken over and the action 

to be taken in case they are caught under shell 

fire or rapid fire while going up to the trenches. 

A second in command in each squad will be 

designated, so that if casualties occur among the 

squad leaders the relief will proceed as previously 

arranged. 



118 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The operation will proceed in silence. Rifles 
must be carried so that they do not show over 
the parapet. On reaching the fire trench the 
men of the first relief are posted to relieve the 
old detail and each man finds out any points 
that may be useful from his predecessor on that 
post. 

The platoon commander 

Information to confers with the commander of 

be Obtained the outgoing party and secures 

all the information possible 

about the position which includes : 

1. Behavior of enemy during period preceding 
relief, and any point in their line requiring special 
information, e. g., enemy may have cut wire as 
though preparing to attack. 

2. Machine-gun emplacement may be sus- 
pected at some particular point. 

3. Anything ascertained by patrols about 
ground between firing lines, thus avoiding un- 
necessary reconnaissance. 

4. Any standing arrangements for patrols at 
night, including point at which wire can best be 
passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where 
they can lie under cover. 

5. Any parts of trench from which it is not safe 



Service in the Trenches 119 

to fire. Such positions are apt to occur in wind- 
ing trenches, and are not always recognizable in 
the dark. 

6. Special features of trench, recent improve- 
ments, work not completed, dangerous points (on 
which machine guns are trained at night), useful 
loopholes for observation. 

7. Places from which food and water can be 
safely obtained. 

8. Amount of ammunition, number of picks, 
shovels and empty sandbags in that section of 
the line. 

Information on these points cannot always be 
given properly by word of mouth. Written notes 
and plans should therefore be handed over to a 
platoon commander taking over for the first 
time. 

Every man is required to see that he has a good 
firing position for all directions. Section com- 
manders must satisfy themselves that men have 
done this, and report. The whole line "Stands 
to Arms" during the hour before dawn. 

After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles 
should be left in firing position on the parapet. 
All men not on sentry should keep rifles, with 
bayonets fixed, in the trench. 



120 Elements of Trench Warfare 

1. Double sentinel posts are 

Routine established in each bay. They* 

are on post one hour at a time. 

2. When the enemy's trench-mortar detach- 
ments are active, special sentinels will be posted 
to give notice of coining bombs. 

3. Every man in the platoon is to know : 

(a) The location of the platoon reserve am- 
munition and munitions. 
(6) The location of latrines. 

(c) The topography of the trenches in the 
platoon section and the adjoining sections, in- 
cluding the approaches. The location of the 
accessory defenses, listening and observation 
posts, machine-gun positions, snipers' positions, 
trench-mortar positions, etc. 

(d) The tactical disposition in the sector and I 
the general disposition of the company. 

(e) The location of loopholes. 

(/) The places of especial danger in order that I 
he may stay away from them. 

4. Rifles are inspected twice daily. Every pre- 
caution is taken to keep the rifle and ammunition 
free from mud. 

5. There is a gas helmet parade daily. 

6. Accurate sketches are made of the trench 
and any addition or alteration entered on them. 



■ " ■ ' ' 



■ 






M Sector of observe t N92 




upv*n}\iij*!i , ziijj , 'y»'JJjmi i i^n 













^"7-1 



'/•'.' ^v 



Fireona Observer ■ -^^^Q5%S^fc 

located point N0 ■, -;- ^?s==?X k 

(hop-hole) "■ ' "-Ha^jji^ ^ 



^-0> 




Organization of fire of Observers in the Combat Trench 



wp*-<^ 

' J ^ t ^ mJ tf^^ : ^t^^^* Fir eon a 

Jocatd point 
(sap-head) 



Fire on a 
heated point 
(loop hole) 



King- /g 1 7 



Plate 42. 



. 



i >*A<5tAC; 



Service in the Trenches 121 

7. Loopholes are inspected at dusk. 

8. Wire entanglements are inspected and re- 
paired under cover of darkness. 

9. A log of events hour by hour should be kept 
which shows every item of enemy activity and 
the measures taken during the tour in the 
trenches. This will be a valuable reference 
when turning the trench over and will make a 
record of the habits of the enemy that may be 
most valuable as a guide for making plans to 
circumvent him. 

10. The police and sanitation of the trenches 
will be carefully looked after. 

11. Platoon commanders may divide the tour 
of supervision of the platoon sector with the 
squad leaders. 

12. The whole company stands to arms during 
the hour before dawn. 

Observation of the enemy's 

Observation line should be continuous. 

The observation and firing 

system will be arranged so that all parts of the 

enemy's line will be under observation and fire 

at all times. 

Plate 42 shows the arrangement in general. 
The appliances for carrying it out are shown in 
Plates 43, 44 and 45. 



122 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The observation is conducted through a small 
loopho'e made by a stick through the parapet 
or an iron tube run through and directed toward 
the point to be observed. To conceal the exit 
a few tufts of earth and grass are placed there 
in an irregular manner. Steel loopholes may 
also be employed for observation and firing 
purposes. They may be arranged a yard or two 
apart, so that one man observing through one 





1 I 


Poretfcet ^ 
>v / j 

Pl are. «./\ I 

WOODEN Li 


lOP Hoi£. 



Plate 43. 



Service in the Trenches 123 

can direct his mate using the rifle at the other 
so that he may bring fire to bear upon any 
member of the enemy's force that exposes him- 
self at the point under observation. 

The loopholes, both observation and firing, are 
arranged slantwise in the parapet so that the 
observer does not look straight to his front nor 
does the firer fire in that direction. 

An aiming rack constructed so as to resist the 
recoil of the rifle and not derange its aim on 
firing may be arranged near the observation 




PLATE 44 



Plate 44. — Observation loophole and rifle firing rack. 



124 Elements of Trench Warfare 

loophole. When the enemy exposes himself all 
that is necessary is a press on the trigger and the 
bullet goes straight to its mark. Such an aim- 
ing rack may be easily constructed, as shown in 
Plate 44. 

Observation of the enemy trenches may also 
be effected by use of the periscope or, in the 
absence of one of these, by a looking glass in a 
slanted position fastened to a stick planted at i 
the rear wall of the trench and protruding oven 
the parapet, to reflect his trenches. (See Plate 45 .) 
The enemy's trench usually 

Field Glasses appears completely deserted, 
but on observing it through 
field glasses you are astonished by the details 
revealed. You will see, from time to time, the 
eye of the enemy observer who shows himself 1 
at the loophole, or any other activity that is 
capable of being observed from the outside. 
The observer watching through the field glasses 
will soon become so familiar with the appearance 
of the opposing trenches that he will be able to 
detect immediately any alteration in the ob- 
stacles, or changes that may be made, such as 
the establishment of new listening or observa- 
tion posts, new sap heads, machine-gun emplace- 
ments, etc. 



Service in the Trenches 125 

Observers are charged especially with detect- 
ing the location of machine-gun emplacements. 
The examination should be so complete and 
detailed as to prevent their existence without 
their location being accurately known. 




PLATE 
45 



Plate 45. — Looking-glass periscope. 




Plate 45a. — Trench showing wire overhead 
cover and wire trapdoor obstacle. Ma- 
chacoulis gallery in background. 



Service in the Trenches 127 

Any observations of enemy activities, of any 
nature whatever, are reported immediately so 
that they may be passed on to the commander 
whose unit is manning the trenches directly 
opposite the same. 

Loopholes should be screened at the rear by 
a sandbag split and hung over them. They 
should be carefully concealed to prevent their 
location being discovered by the enemy. There 
must be no alteration in the parapet where 
they are located. 

The enemy's sojourn in the 
Snipers trenches should be made as 

disagreeable to him as pos- 
sible. He must be kept continually on the 
alert. Our operations must be made a constant 
menace to him. It is in this way that casual- 
ties are effected and he is gradually worn out. 
One of the best methods of accomplishing all of 
the above is the employment of snipers, who are 
specially selected and trained in this branch of 
trench warfare. 

The snipers are on duty all day, but they have 
their nights in bed. They conduct their opera- 
tions in pairs and are given a definite post to 
occupy and in exceptional cases may be given 
a roving commission. The advantage of having 



128 Elements of Trench Warfare 

the same men regularly on the same post is that 
they learn thoroughly the appearance of every 
square foot of the ground included in their area 
of observation and are able immediately to note 
any change that may take place. They soon 
learn where to look for the enemy and in fact 
learn the habits, etc., of the enemy occupying 
their sphere of observation. 

The sniper must be an expert in : 

1. The construction of loopholes by day and 
by night. 

2. The use of telescopic sights, field glasses, 
periscopes and all optical contrivances designed 
for observation purposes. 

3. The selection of good positions for sniping. 

4. Judging distances and estimating or measur- 
ing ranges. 

5. Rifle firing. He should be an expert 
rifleman in order that full advantage may be 
taken of the opportunities to inflict losses on 
the enemy. 

6. In trench warfare each pair of snipers 
will be required to report each evening to the 
company commander the result of their day's 
operations. 



Service in the Trenches 129 

When the enemy makes his 

What to attack you will generally fire 

Fire At at those who appear in the 

sector that has been allotted to 

you to cover. You may, however, abandon 

your target on your own initiative under the 

following circumstances and fire: 

1. On officers and non-commissioned officers. 
These can be recognized by their gestures. 
They are generally in the center of groups and 
get up and start first. They should be disabled, 
as this is the surest way of breaking up the attack. 

2. At a group on the move. Fire should be 
concentrated on an advancing group. The 
time when the group is preparing to start its 
rush may be indicated by rifles being raised 
and the movements that take place along the 
line. After a rush has started, look out for 
the late comers trying to rejoin their comrades. 
They make good targets. 

3. When the enemy attempts to build up his 
line to the front by a process of infiltration, 
That is, by having single men crawl from one 
point to the other, each man should be fired on 
during his advance. 

4. Fire will be immediately concentrated on 
any machine gun that comes into action. W 7 ith 



130 Elements of Trench Warfare 

the German gun prolonged firing heats the water 
in the jacket to the boiling point and puffs of 
steam are given off. Do not be deceived into 
thinking that this necessarily gives away the 
position of the gun, for this steam has been 
piped to a distant place and allowed to escape 
so as to draw fire that otherwise might be directed 
on the real position of the gun. 

5. On signallers or runners. These are carry- 
ing information that will probably be of benefit 
to the enemy's commander. You will appre- 
ciate the necessity of preventing this. 

6. On an enemy showing a flank. No oppor- 
tunity must be lost to fire upon an enemy that 
exposes his flank. The fire of a single rifleman 
down the flank may cause a whole line to retreat. 

Rifle grenades are capable 
Use of Rifle of causing more losses to the 
Grenades enemy than bombardment. 
The rifle grenade arrives at 
its destination unexpectedly without any noise; 
it explodes before one has even time to get out 
of the way. As it does not arrive at fixed hours 
like the bombardment, the enemy cannot con- 
tinually avoid it by taking refuge in his dugouts 
and shelters; when he is moving about a trench 
which is subject to rifle grenading he must be 



Service in the Trenches 131 

continually on the alert. This perpetual menace, 
hour in and hour out, day in and day out, renders 
his sojourn in the trenches extremely disagreeable. 

Before rifle grenades are thrown careful ob- 
servation of the opposing trench must have been 
made to determine the point where the grenade 
is likely to do the greatest damage. 

Rifles are placed in the aiming racks and the 
grenades fired from time to time, day and night, 
at moments when it seems propitious. In this 
way a sentinel may be taken by surprise; a 
noncommissioned officer or officer may be 
caught unawares. 

It should be remembered that we will prob- 
ably be able to throw twenty grenades to the 
enemy's one. Advantage should always be 
taken of this munitions superiority. Every man 
of the enemy we can put out of action is one less 
to kill us in the advance which will eventually 
come. Sometimes the enemy will try to reply. 
Here is where our munitions superiority comes 
in again. We can fairly shower him with 
grenades and make him take to his shelters. 

It may be advisable to execute a sudden 
burst of grenade fire. This is started by a 
volley and followed by fire at will. 

When the artillery has destroyed parts of the 



132 Elements of Trench Warfare 

enemy's trenches or makes breaches in his 
obstacles by day he will endeavor to repair 
them at night. He may be considerably an- 
noyed and losses inflicted upon him by a well- 
directed shower of rifle grenades arriving at 
points where his working parties are located. 
To make this effective the rifle racks should be 
placed in position and secured during the day 
after trial shots have demonstrated conclu- 
sively the direction and angle for them. 

You will be impressed by the 
Shelling shells, especially the big ones. 

The din and blast of the 
explosions are, to say the least, terrifying. But 
you will soon come to know that the shell often 
makes more noise than it does harm and that,! 
after a terrific bombardment, by no means is 
everybody destroyed. 

The big shell, which is so 
How to Protect appalling, is only really danger - 
Yourself from ous if it falls on the place 
Shells where a man is standing, be- 

cause the splinters rise in the* 
air. Fall down flat when the shell bursts. 
Even if you are quite close, there is comparatively \ 
little risk. Get up immediately after the 
explosion, especially if you are 200 to 300 yards 



Service in the Trenches 133 

away from the place where it burst. The 
splinters do not fall for some time after the 
explosion. 

The steel helmets and the infantry pack will 
furnish considerable protection from shrapnel 
fragments and balls. 

The safest place to avoid 
During the the enemy's shell fire when 
Combat the attack has been launched 

is close up to the enemy's 
position, where the artillery fire has to cease for 
fear of placing shells indiscriminately in his own 
troops and ours. Some men, completely dis- 
tracted, lie down with their face to the ground. 
They will be crushed where they lie. Artillery 
fire, when it is violent, tends to throw the ranks 
into confusion and disorder. You have only 
ears for the roar of the approaching shell. You 
slow down and attempt to seek cover where there 
is no cover. The unit breaks up, and runs wild 
or stops altogether. Disorder and confusion 
means massacre. 

March strictly in place. To the front is your 
safest haven of refuge. Get hold of the fright- 
ened ones and keep them hi place. You will 
need them to help you when you reach the goal. 



134 Elements of Trench Warfare 

Dugouts with strong over- 

In the Trenches head cover are provided for 

your protection when not 

actually required to man the trench. In some 

places it may be possible to dig shelter caves and 

shore up the roofs. 

Scouting and patrolling to 
Scouting and the front is of greatest im- 
Patrolling portance. It is kept up both 
day and night. The units 
occupying the first line send out patrols whenever 
necessary. They are frequently able to obtain 
valuable information and at the same time serve 
to counteract the enemy's efforts in this direction. 
The patrols generally consist of a junior 
officer or noncommissioned officer and from four 
to six selected men. Their operations are con- 
ducted in accordance with the situation and the 
mission they are sent on. 

Hand grenades are frequently carried for both 

To the Reader: You will find a wealth of infor- 
mation on the methods to be employed by scouts 
and patrols in a little book similar to this one in size, 
entitled "Scouting and Patrolling," by the author of 
this volume. Published and for sale by the United 
States Infantry Association, Washington, D. C. 
Price 50 cents, by mail, postpaid Get your copy 
now and prepare yourself for these important duties. 



Service in the Trenches 135 

offensive and defensive operations. Grenade 
patrols always carry them. The operations of 
patrols may include : 

1. Reconnaissance of sectors of the enemy's 
position with a view to determining his disposi- 
tions and arrangement of obstacles. 

2. Making sketches of positions. 

3. Capturing prisoners. 

4. Opposing enemy patrols. 

5. Harassing the enemy. 

When the patrol goes out every man in the 
sector of the firing line must be informed of such 
fact and the possibility of its returning through 
his post. It is not sufficient to simply notify the 
men on post at the time the patrol goes out, as a 
man cannot always be trusted to pass the in- 
formation on to his relief. Word should be 
quietly taken along the line by the noncom- 
missioned officer in charge of the relief in person. 
When the patrol is out, special instructions have 
to be given with respect to firing. To cease 
firing altogether is very undesirable. It arouses 
the enenry's suspicions. A few trustworthy 
riflemen are directed to fire high at intervals. 
No lights are sent up while the patrol is out. 

If the patrol is to remain stationary, similar 
to the outguard of an outpost, communication 



136 Elements of Trench Warfare 

may be maintained by means of a string, spelling 
out the messages by Morse code, two jerk; 
meaning a dash and one jerk meaning a dot. 

Where night patrols have to remain out undei 

trying conditions special dugouts should be 

reserved where they can rest upon their return 

The infantryman's rifle is 

Care of Arms his best friend. The persona] 
care that he gives to it is in-> 
dicative of his soldier ness and discipline. Your 
rifle must be kept in prime condition, otherwise 
it may fail you at a critical moment. A canvas 
breech cover that will protect the bolt and magazine 
mechanism will be found a great advantage 
when the rifle is not in use. Care must be taken 
to exclude mud and dirt from the bolt mechanism. i 
Do not put mud-covered cartridges into the 
magazine. Wipe them off first. Arrange a 
proper receptacle near your post for the storage 
of your reserve ammunition. Be careful that 
you do not clog the muzzle of the rifle with mud 
and dirt. If fired in this condition it will ruin 
the rifle. Be careful not to clog up the sight 
cover with mud. Oil the rifle frequently with 
good sperm oil. Half of the oilers in the squad 
should be filled with oil and the other half with 
Hoppe's No. 9 Powder Solvent. 



Service in the Trenches 187 

Rifles niust be carefully inspected daily by 
platoon commanders and the men required to 
work on them during the periods off post. 

Repairs will have to be 
Care of made daily. The widening of 

Trenches trenches in the making of 
repairs should be strictly for- 
bidden. Under no circumstances must they be 
altered in any manner except on the order of the 
company commander. 

Platoon commanders will go over every part of 
the trench several times daily with the squad 
leaders of the various sections and decide upon 
the repairs and improvements to be made. A 
complete and thorough police will be made 
prior to being relieved. All refuse will be re- 
moved. Fired cartridges will be disposed of, as 
they might get imbedded in the trench floor and 
hinder subsequent digging. 

Each squad leader will be held strictly respon- 
sible for the state of police of the section of 
trench occupied by his squad. 

Latrines are located at con- 
Latrines venient points in the trenches. 
For the men on duty in the 
first line they are generally dug to the flank of a 



138 Elements of Trench Warfare 

connecting trench and connected therewith by a 
passageway. Their location is plainly marked. 
The rules of sanitation are even more strictly 
observed in trenches than they are in soldier 
camps. The trenches and passageways must not 
under any circumstances be defiled. Latrines 
should be kept clean and sanitary. They will be 
carefully protected from flies. The free use of 
chloride of lime daily is an absolute necessity. 

A complete detailed plan of 
Maps our own trenches and as much 

as is known of those of the 
enemy opposite should be made, and be available 
for study and to refer to in making reports. 
Every bay of the trench should be numbered, 
every traverse lettered. All junction points of 
fire and communicating trenches, all dugouts, 
all posts, mortar positions, machine-gun positions, 
observation posts, and any points that it may be 
necessary to refer to in reports should be desig- 
nated by numbers. 

The causes are: 
Frost Bite; 1. Prolonged standing in 

Chilled Feet cold water or liquid mud. 

2. Tight boots and leggings, 
that interfere with the blood circulation. 



Service in the Trenches 139 

1. Before going into the 
Prevention trenches wash the feet and 
legs and dry them thoroughly. 
The British Army has an issue of an anti-freeze 
mixture which will probably be issued to our 
troops also. The feet and legs should be rubbed 
with it. Put on perfectly dry socks. An extra 
pair of dry socks should be carried. 

2. During the period of service in the trenches 
the feet should be treated in this manner from 
time to time. 

3. When the feet are cold, hot water will not 
be used for washing nor will they be held close to 
a fire. 

4. Rubber boots must be worn only in the 
trenches. On no account must they be worn 
while on reserve. 

Trench Soldiers' Creed 

To be of the greatest effectiveness in the trench 
every soldier, personally and collectively, must 
be able to adopt the following creed and live 
up to it: 

1. We are here for two purposes, to do as 
much damage as possible to the enemy and to 
hold our section of the line against all attacks. 
We are doing everything in our power to accom- 



140 Elements of Trench Warfare 

plish these missions. We realize that even 
man of the enemy confronting us that is no 
placed hors de combat will be there ready tc 
shoot us down when the assault takes place 
We realize also that if the enemy makes a lodg 
ment on our section of the line that it endangers- 
others and a costly counter attack may be 
necessary. We will hold on. 

2. With the means at hand and those we are 
able to devise we will make the enemy's stay 
in his trenches as uncomfortable and disagree- 
able as possible. All of our utilities are being 
utilized to the fullest extent and our various 
detachments are organized and their tactical 
operations are conducted with this object in 
view. 

3. We have done everything possible to 
strengthen our line. 

4. If, despite all the precautions we can take 
and the hardest fight we are able to make, the 
enemy succeeds in effecting a lodgment on our 
section of the line, we will meet him with the 
bayonet and fight to the last drop of our blood. 

5. We are all familiar with the tactical dis- 
positions in our section of the line. Those of 
us on the flanks connect up with the platoons 
to our right and left. We know the route to 



Service in the Trenches 141 

company and battalion headquarters and know 
where the nearest support is located. We 
know the position of our machine guns and the 
sector they cover. We are in constant com- 
munication with the observing posts that cover 
our front, and our observing posts covering the 
other platoons are in constant communication 
with them. 

6. We know the firing position assigned to us 
and are familiar with the use to be made of the 
accessories furnished us. We can fire over the 
parapet at the foot of our wire entanglements to 
repel night attack. 

7. We will at all times be careful about need- 
lessly exposing ourselves. We appreciate the 
fact that it is absolutely stupid to get killed or 
wounded in the trench through negligence. By 
so doing one has served no purpose and a soldier 
cannot be replaced. Our leaders have warned 
us of the especially dangerous places. We know 
where they are and avoid them except w T hen our 
presence there is necessary as a matter of duty. 

8. The sections of the enemy's line that we are 
to cover with our fire have all been pointed out 
and each of us is familiar with same. We have 
located the enemy's loopholes and are doing 
our best to keep them under fire. 



142 Elements of Trench Warfare 

9. We know our way and move noiselessly, 
about the trenches. When we enter and leave 
it is with absolute silence. 

10. We are doing our utmost to collect in- 
formation about the enemy, his defenses, his 
activity, his movements, and especially his 
night operations. All of this information we 
transmit immediately to the platoon leader. 

11. We know the best way to get over our 
parapet to reach the enemy. 

12. Our appliances for protection from gas 
attacks are complete and ready for instant use. 
We have our helmets on our persons ready to 
put on. We are familiar with their use and have 
confidence in their effectiveness. We will wait 
for the signal to don our gas helmets (signal is 
usually made by beating a gong, and care must 
be taken to follow exactly the directions for 
putting on the gas helmets; carelessness may 
mean your disablement). 

13. Our trenches are drained and every pre- 
caution is being taken to keep the drains and 
sump holes in condition to perform their functions. 

14. We have rendered the parapets and 
shelters throughout our sector bullet-proof, and 
effective measures are being taken to prevent 
them from caving in. 



Service in the Trenches 143 

15. We are keeping our trenches sanitary and 
clean; our reserve munitions are carefully stored 
in their proper places ready for instant use. 
Refuse is always placed in receptacles when it 
can be carried away. We do not under any 
circumstances litter up our trench floor. Our 
empty shells are collected and sent to the rear. 

16. Our rifles are our best friends. We keep 
them clean, well oiled, and in readiness for 
instant use. Our bayonets we have with us at 
all times ready to be placed on the rifle. We 
protect our rifle ammunition from the mud, as 
we realize that muddy cartridges will clog the 
breech mechanism and cause mal-f unction. 

17. We are taking every precaution to pre- 
vent "trench feet;" when practicable we take off 
our shoes and rub our feet for 15 minutes each 
day. We do not wear tight shoes and leggings 
that tend to interfere with blood circulation. 
We each have a pair of dry socks to put on. We 
do not wear rubber boots except when it is abso- 

utely necessary. 

18. We observe the orders regarding the 
wearing of equipment. 

19. We do not drink any water except that 
from authorized sources. We replenish our 
canteens whenever practicable. 



144 Elements of Trench Warfare 

In addition to the above the platoon com- 
mander must be able to adopt the following and 
live up to them : 

1. My sentries are posted in the proper places. 
They are posted by noncommissioned officers. 
They have the proper orders. No man is ever 
on duty more than one hour at a time. I visit 
them at frequent intervals. 

2. I have a runner ready to carry a message 
to company headquarters. I realize that any 
information of the enemy that I may secure may 
be of great importance at regimental and other 
headquarters. I will therefore send it back with 
the utmost dispatch. 

3. I am familiar with the methods of com- 
municating with the artillery, of giving them 
information and of asking them for support. 

4. My patrols operating to the front at night 
have been properly instructed and are doing 
their duty effectively. All sentries in the trench 
have been notified when they are out and cau- 
tioned to look out for their return. 

5. I have given complete and detailed instruc- 
tion covering what to do in case of gas attacks 
and the sending out of the S. 0. S. signal. I 
have gas and attack messages already prepared 



Service in the Trenches 145 

and ready to send after inserting the time and 
place in them. 

6. I know the name of every man in rny pla- 
toon and they all know me. 

7. I am here to inflict as much damage as 
possible on the enemy and to hold my part of 
the line. / will do it! 



CHAPTER XI 
The Attack in Trench Warfare 

The objectives which must I 
Objectives be dealt with in the attack 
of an intrenched position such 
as will be found on the western front are: 

1. The trenches of the first line. 

2. The supporting points. 

3. The trenches of the second line. 

By a study of the text preceding this you must 
realize that in the defense of these objectives 
there will be employed artillery, rifles, grenades 
and machine guns. 

The first phase of the attack 
Artillery is the artillery preparation. 

Preparation In order that the infantry may 
make the attack with a mini- 
mum of losses, the artillery must have destroyed 
the wire entanglements and obstacles that ob- 
struct the advance, or at least have sufficiently 
breached them to permit their being negotiated. 
The destruction of these obstacles is never com- 
plete. It would require too great an expenditure 
of ammunition. The infantry occupying the 
hostile trenches must be simply overwhelmed 
with artillery fire so that they will be unable to 
man the parapets when the assault is launched. 

146 



Attack in Trench Warfare 147 

During the artillery preparation the hostile 
infantry does not occupy their firing positions 
in the trenches but remain in their dugouts, 
which are fully protected from all but the heaviest 
shells. Only a few observers are left in the 
trenches. 

When the bombardment against this particular 
part of the line ceases the infantry leave their 
dugouts and man the firing positions. To pre- 
vent this is one of the most important as well 
as most difficult tasks of the artillery. This 
may be effected by a well-directed fire on the 
exits to the dugouts with a view to caving them 
in and thus preventing the egress of the occu- 
pants. The enemy may sometimes be induced to 
leave his shelter prematurely by the following 
ruse: 

1. Cease the artillery fire. 

2. Open a heavy rifle fire; this causes the enemy 
to believe that the assault has begun and he will 
man his parapets in strength. 

3. After waiting for several minutes open the 
artillery again with even increased vigor. 

The hostile infantry may be forced out of his 
dugouts by the use of shells and grenades con- 
taining suffocating gases which penetrate the 
shelters and make them untenable. 



148 Elements of Trench Warfare 

The artillery is also charged with putting th< 
enemy's artillery out of action to prevent then 
from firing upon the attacking infantry. 

If the enemy artillery is left free, it will shel 
our trenches and approaches, causing casualties 
and confusion and thus interfering with the 
formation for the attack. The location ol 
hostile batteries is effected by aerial reconnais- 
sance 

Another task of the artillery is to prevent the 
hostile reserves from coming up to reinforce their 
firing lines. These reserves will be located back 
in the second line until their presence is required 
at the front. As long as the artillery prepara-i 
tion continues they remain in the shelters, but: 
as soon as it ceases they man the trenches. The 
artillery must therefore extend its fire to the 
second line and continue it while the first line is 
being rushed. Back of the second position the 
enemy holds strong reserves. The entrance of 
these into action must be prevented. This 
is accomplished by extending the curtain of fire 
still further to the rear. The supporting points 
must receive a lion's share of attention for, brist- 
ling with machine guns and trench mortars, 
they are the really dangerous elements to the in- 
fantry attack after it passes the first line trenches. 



Attack in Trench Warfare 149 

The weapon which inflicts the greatest losses 
on the assaulting infantry is the machine gun, 
which appears suddenly out of the ground and 
lays low whole units. By a careful reconnais- 
sance these machine-gun positions are ferreted 
out and every possible means are taken to effect 
their destruction. 

The effectiveness of the artillery preparation 
depends simply upon superiority of guns and 
munitions. In this respect we now possess a 
great advantage, for the state of our munition 
supply is such that our artillery may fire several 
shells to one of the enemy. This is what estab- 
lished the superiority. 

The organization of the at- 

Organization tacking infantry corresponds 
of Infantry in a general way to the organ- 
Attack ization of the position being 
attacked. A first line of as- 
sault is organized. Its mission is the capture 
of the enemy's first line trenches. A second line 
follows, having for its mission the assault and 
capture of the second line trenches. A separate 
organization of these two lines is necessary for 
the reason that the first attacking line is generally 
so disorganized in the fighting that it no longer 



150 Elements of Trench Warfare 

possesses the cohesion necessary to carry i1i 
through to the second line. It has been found 
necessary to launch a comparatively fresh and 
intact force against it. 

As the first position is organized into several 
separate lines of defense, so also is the first! 
attacking line organized and launched in two 
or more waves, those in rear being in the nature 
of reinforcements to those in front. 

Each unit of the attacking. 
Objectives line is assigned a distinct ob- 
jective. Certain units are 
given the mission of attacking the supporting, 
points to prevent their enfilading the units ad- 
vancing through the intervals between them. 

The main efforts are made along the lines be- 
tween the supporting points, as to assault the 
latter would entail a casualty list not commen- 
surate with the results. The effort against them 
is made with a view to neutralizing their effect. 
If the attack is successful in the intervals, 
the supporting points will fall as a result. 

The waves of the first line are directed against 
the first position, the second against the second 
position. The reserves held under the orders of 
the division commander are employed where 
the development of the situation dictates. 



Attack in Trench Warfare 151 

Further to the rear, and under orders of the 
supreme commander, large bodies of reinforce- 
ments are held ready to be moved rapidly to 
points where progress has been made to such an 
extent that maneuver operations are practicable. 
Preparatory to the assault, 
Preparation for numerous saps (trenches) are 
the Assault run out to the front from the 
main firing trenches. The 
night before the attack, a parallel is broken out 
connecting the sap heads. This parallel is 
amply supplied with short ladders and is occu- 
pied by the companies composing the first wave 
of the attack. The saps and the main trenches 
are also filled with men assigned to the following 
waves, who will move into the parallel as soon 
as the first wave leaves it. As the artillery 
preparation ceases, the first waves rush up the 
ladders in succession and move out to the assault. 
As the artillery preparation 
The First Wave against the first line is com- 
pleted and the curtain of fire 
shifted far into the enemy's position, the in- 
fantry of the first wave emerges from the parallel 
and moves out. The formation and gait de- 
pend upon the distance to the hostile trench. 
If the artillery preparation has been effective 



152 Elements of Trench Warfare 

and the distance is not more than 100 yards, it 
is expected that the wave will be able to reach 
the fire trench without firing, except possibly 
when the wire is reached. If the distance is 
much greater than 100 yards, it is necessary to 
cover the advance with rifle fire. This is accom- 
plished by a line of skirmishers deployed at 
extended intervals, which precedes the wave at 
about 50 yards. The wave starts out at a walk, 
carefully aligned. It afterwards takes up thei 
double time and advances by rushes until the 
wire entanglements are reached. 

From this moment the period of the charge 
and individual combat begins. The men can 
no longer be kept from firing. Each tries to' 
protect himself with his rifle. Each man locates 
his opening in the wire through which he is to go 
and makes for it. The line reforms on the 
other side. With rifles at the high charge (a 
position to our old head parry, but slanting 
slightly upward from right to left) the line 
rushes upon the enemy. Each man runs straight 
towards the part of the trench in front of him 
and jumps upon the parapet. By rifle shots 
and bayonet thrusts he destroys everything in 
his way. Men selected in advance take charge 
of the prisoners. The line is reformed, lying 



Attack in Trench Warfare 153 

down just beyond the fire trench, and fire is 
opened against the second line. Men are posi- 
tively forbidden to enter the communication 
trenches. They are most inviting for cover, 
but a man rarely gets out of them. 

The grenadier squad proceed to their work of 
clearing the fire and communication trenches. 

The second wave of the first 

The Second line starts forward at the 
Wave moment the first wave reaches 

the hostile trenches. If it 
starts sooner, it will unite with the first at the 
entanglement and become involved in m the fight 
for the fire trench. It will be broken up pre- 
maturely and will be unable to take advantage 
of the developments of the fight of the first 
wave. The reinforcement by the second wave 
and the disorganization produced by the assault 
lead to a mixture of units in the trenches of the 
first position. Before starting out to the assault 
of the next trench it is necessary that order be 
restored. When this is accomplished the attack 
is launched against the second line. In front 
of the supporting points the combat rages. 
The men are barely able to hold on the outer 
edges. In the interval the advance has reached 
high tide and has expanded like a wave and 



154 Elements of Trench Warfare 

stopped. This is the limit that can be expected 
of the first line. 

Hasty cover is prepared and advantage taken 
of such cover as may exist. All elements of 
the attack open fire on the second position. 

Under the cover of these 
The Second operations the second line has 
Line come up in a series of three 

lines, where it is built up com- 
pact at the position of the stopped first line. 
From this point its attack against the enemy's 
second line is launched. The lines are worked 
up to a point from which the assault is to be 
made, and when the time comes the first wave 
dashes out to the attack, followed by the second 
wave in the same manner as the assault against 
the first position was made. 

The action of the two lines of attack may be 
expected to overwhelm the greater part of the 
two main hostile positions. At certain points, 
however, the resistance will hold out, and, if 
not overcome, will constitute points of support 
to which the enemy may bring up reinforce- 
ments and even turn the tide of battle by a 
counter attack. 

To deal with these points that hold out, as 
well as with hostile reinforcements which may 



Attack in Trench Warfare 155 

arrive, the reserve is launched into action, which 
brings the attack into the open ground beyond 
the second line of defense, and maneuver opera- 
tions are begun. The mobile units are rapidly 
thrown into action, and large forces from the 
general reserve are hurried to the point where 
the lines of defense are broken through. 

From what has gone before we may deduce 
that the following conditions must prevail to 
attain success in an attack on a prepared position : 

1. The attack must be planned down to the 
most minute detail. 

2. There must be a greatly superior force of 
artillery concentrated at the point of attack, 
and the artillery preparation must be thorough. 

3. The infantry must be sufficient in number, 
training and morale to perform the tasks that 
will be demanded of them. 

4. The arrangements for the supply of ammu- 
nition to the firing line must be planned and 
carried out in all its details. 

5. Plans for meeting counter attacks must be 
thorough and complete. The capture of a posi- 
tion is often less difficult than its retention. 

6. Finally, every officer and man must know 
exactly what he is to do. 



Scouting and Patrolling 

By 

Capt. W. H. WALDRON 

29th Infantry 

Cloth Bound— Fits the Pocket 
3d EDITION 



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The best, most complete and practical treatment 
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What To Do and How To Do It 

Just the book needed for the instruction of the 
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Endorsed by Leading Officers of the Army 



Published and for sale by 

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Union Trust Building 

Washington, D. C. 



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TACTICAL TALKS 

By Capt. W. H. Waldron, 29th Infantry 

To the Reader: 

The up-to-date method of instruction and training in Minor r 
Tactics is this: 

1. Prepare a tactical problem covering the subject under 
consideration. 

2. Take the noncommissioned officers out on a TACTICAL 
WALK and make a solution of the various situations. 

3. Follow this by taking the company out on a tactical 
exercise for the solving of the identical problem that you solved 
in the TACTICAL WALK. 

This method will bring results that will surprise you. In 
the Tactical Walk, tactical situations are presented to the non- 
commissioned officers for practical solution on the ground and 
they are firmly impressed upon the minds of the men. When 
the same problem is brought up for solution with the troops 
you will see your noncommissioned officers going about their 
various tasks in a business-like manner with a knowledge of 
what to do and how to do it, that they have never had before. 
This inspires the confidence of the men in their noncom- 
missioned officers and as a result the entire organization is 
lifted to a much higher "tactical level" than they have been 
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TACTICAL WALKS is an entirely original work. It was 
written with a view to inaugurating this system of instruction 
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For each walk a tactical problem has been prepared in 
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A practical solution is then arrived at and set forth. 

At the end of the solution to each situation there is inserted a 
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Every officer in the Army should have a copy. It will save 
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Every noncommissioned officer should have a copy and study 
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ORDER YOUR COPY TODAY. 

The price is $1.50 per copy, postage paid. 

Copies of the book may be had from any one of the agencies 
enumerated on page V of this book. 

W. H. Waldron, 
Captain, Twenty-ninth Infantry. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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